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DRAMA IN 
EDUCATION 


TOOHOS DNINIVUL OOVOIHO GZHL 40 Tad VHO AHL NI GAOVLIS WItvVLaod 

















DRAMA IN 
EDUCATION 


Theory and Technique 


| BY 
GracE SLoan Overton, M.A. 


THe CEentruRY Co. 
New York &F London 





Copyright, 1926, by 
THE CENTURY Co. 


PRINTED IN U. S. A. 


To 
MY HUSBAND 


and 


SON 


Digitized by the Internet Archive 
in 2022 with funding from 
Princeton Theological Seminary Library 


https://archive.org/details/dramaineducationO0over 


PREFACE 


This book is intended primarily as a text for 
courses emphasizing the value and use of the 
dramatic method in secular and religious Edu- 
cation. It is intended to meet the need of the 
rapidly increasing number of teachers, com- 
munity workers, directors of religious educa- 
tion, members of dramatic clubs, and others 
who wish to use drama for educational pur- 
poses. It is hoped that it will be found of 
practical value, also, to those not caring to 
undertake forma] study in the field but who de- 
sire an introduction to the theory and tech- 
nique of the educational use of drama. In the 
treatment special consideration has been given 
to the rising tide of interest in moral education 
on the part of public school educators and in re- 
ligious education on the part of church leaders. 

The material has been used by the writer 
over a number of years in teaching courses in 


f vii | 


PREFACE 


college, community training schools, and sum- 
mer camps. It represents not only the library 
research indicated but also a considerable prac- 
tical experience in directing dramatic produc- 
tions, both secular and religious, under a wide 
variety of conditions. 

The writer is indebted to a large number 
who have rendered valuable assistance by en- 
couragement and criticism. 

GracE SLOAN OVERTON 
Chicago, 1926. 


[ viii] 


CHAPTER 


i 


CONTENTS 


Tue New Interest In Drama . 


Evidences of the Renewal of Inter- 
est 

The Causes of This Renewal. Devel- 
opment of Community Drama—Rec- 
ognition of Educational Value— 
Modern Emphasis on Recreation— 
Changing Attitude of the Church 
Dangers Attending the Movement 


II. Historica DEVELOPMENT . 


IIl. 


Primitive Dramatics. Religious Cere- 
monies—J apan—India—Greece 
Drama in the Early Christian Church. 
Inimical Attitude of Moral Pagans— 
Inimical Attitude of early Christians 
—Liturgical and Mystery Plays— 
The Miracle Plays—The Moralities 
The American Church and Drama 


PsycHOLOGICAL Basis oF THE DRAMATIC 


IMPULSE 


Dramatic Impulse Part of the Indi- 
vidual’s Equipment 
[1x] 


PAGE 


15 


47 


OHAPTER 


CONTENTS 


Expression of Dramatic Impulse in 
All Stages of Development. Infancy 
—The Dramatic Age—Junior Period 
—Adolescence—Adulthood 


IV. Tur EpucaTionaL VALUE OF THE DRA- 


MATIC Mretruop 


The Ultimate Aim of Education. 
The Development of Personality 

The Dramatic Tendency as a Tool of 
Learning 

Educational Values. Complete En- 
listment of All the Faculties—Natural 
Response—Release from Fact Envi- 
ronment and Fact Personality—De- 
velopment of Imagination—Aims be- 
yond Present §Attainment—Gets 
Teaching into Action; Achieves Per- 
sonal Values 


V. Tue Puace or Dramatic ACTIVITIES IN 


THE PROGRAM OF ReELicious EpucA- 
TION 


What Makes Education Religious? 
Does Religious Education Require 
Special Methods? 

The Educational Value of the Dra- 
matic Method in Religious Education 
Guiding Principles. Dramatic Activ- 
ities an Integral Part of the Pro- 


[x] 


PAGE 


65 


85 


OHAPTER 


VI. Tyrrs oF Dramatic AcTIVITIES 


CONTENTS 


gram — Purposefulness — Stimulation 
of Moral and Religious Impulses— 
Proper Gradation to Meet Individual 
Needs and Capacities 


Picturesque. Statue Posing—The 
Tableau—The Pantomime 

Story Playing 

The Masque 

Dramatization of Events and Situa- 
tions 

The Pageant 

The Prepared Play 

Liturgical Drama 


VII. Tuer TEcuHNIQUE oF Dramatic Propuc- 


TION 


Need of Technique. Clear Definition 
of Purpose 

Dramatic Expression Must Be Artis- 
tic 

Choice of Play. Ability of Cast— 
Soundness of Sentiments—Characters 
—Balance in Acting Values—Ends to 
Be Desired—Conditions of Production 
Choice of Cast. Methods of Choice— 
Standard of Measurement 
Preparation of Script 

Rehearsals. Common Definition of 


[xi] 


PAGE 


aeUaD 


. 143 





DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


{ \ 
Dats Hes, , 
ty PAV 





DRAMA IN EDUCATION 
Theory and Technique 


CHAPTER I 


THE NEW INTEREST IN DRAMA 


. . - But here behold a miracle: Time sleeps; 
Fate nods; and Death hath had his will. 

Tonight, the centuries, like pages of a book, 
Turn backward; and the Rose of Art doth breathe 
With a new perfume, springtides long forgot. 

—Thomas Wood Stephens. 


EVIDENCES OF THE RENEWAL OF INTEREST 


That there is a renewal of interest in drama 
is not to be doubted. For evidence one has 
but to enumerate the various organizations 
that are of more or less recent origin, such as 
the Little Theatre Movement, the Drama 
League of America, the Community Drama 


[3] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


League, the Theatre Guild, and others, all of 
which have as their chief motivation the pro- 
motion of dramatic activities as a means of 
education, recreation, and culture. 


THe Causes oF THis RENEWAL 


Development of Community Drama.— 
There has been a new emphasis upon com- 
munity life and the development of a com- 
munity consciousness. Drama has provided 
a means for the expression of this conscious- 
ness. ‘The modern revival of drama for this 
purpose was undertaken as a conscious and 
deliberate attempt to create a community art. 
It has been successful in increasing the happi- 
ness of the community through interpreting 
the meaning of human life by bringing art and 
beauty into the minds of the people. Dewey 
in speaking of drama says, “It consummates, 
therefore, the range of fine arts, because in 
dramatic form we have the highest ideal of 
self, personality displaying itself in form of 

[4] 


NEW INTEREST IN DRAMA 


personality. The ideal and the mode of em- 
bodiment are both personal and beyond that 
art cannot go, for in this man finds himself 
expressed.” * Community drama is dedi- 
cated to the service of the commonalty; it 
marks the awakening of the people to self- 
assertion in their recreation. It has stimulated 
civic pride and patriotism by making vivid 
through dramatic representation certain events 
in a given community. The community con- 
sciousness is thus expressed in visible form. 
Recognition of Educational V alwe—There 
is also a recognition of the educational value 
of dramatic activities. The curricula of many 
of the state normal schools and universities 
include courses in the use of the dramatic 
method of teaching. Most of the texts on 
public school methods give some attention to 
the educational value and use of this method. 
“In many progressive schools dramatic plays, 
organized and presented by the children, have 
recently been organized. Within a few years 


1 Dewey, Psychology, p. 232. 


[5] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


we may expect to see published practical 
manuals that will instruct teachers in the or- 
ganization of such plays which will employ 
the dramatic talent of children.” ” 

Modern Emphasis on Recreation.—In our 
advanced civilization in which man’s own in- 
genuity has found new and more effective 
ways of support in the acquiring of efficiency 
there is a denial to the great majority of lives, 
in their daily work, of expression of their in- 
dividuality or initiative.* Because of this fact 
it has become more important for a recrea- 
tional program to be provided for the adult 
to afford opportunity for recreation and self- 
expression. : Dramatic activities have played 
a large part in this program. 

We are recognizing also the importance of 
the play life of children. As Groos says, 
“Children do not play because they are young, 
but are young that they may play.’* The 


2Parker, Types of Elementary Teaching and Learning, 
493. 


3 Lee, Play in Education, p. 446. 
4Groos, The Play of Man. 


[6] 


NEW INTEREST IN DRAMA 


operation of the law of growth through play 
is something with which we are all familiar. 
It is the same as that of the general law of 
growth through action. We cannot go so deep 
in human nature but that the same law holds. 
That children are peculiarly susceptible of 
such development is a further commonplace. 
Our youth, too, present a special problem. 
In attempting to make full use of the period 
of plasticity we have put much leisure at their 
disposal. Such leisure time may be either an 
asset or a liability. In too many eases it has 
proved a liability. Because of these facts the 
message of play and recreation as a construc- 
tive social force has been carried during recent 
years by the church, Y.M.C.A., Y.W.C.A.., 
Community Service, Red Cross, Public Health 
Nurses, and other similar organizations, into 
the small towns, rural community, and city 
centers. As a result the economy of putting 
forth every effort to secure the moral develop- 
ment of youth is being acknowledged. 
Friedrich von Schiller (1754-1805), the 
L7] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


great German poet, in an essay entitled “The 
Stage as a Moral Institution” after discuss- 
ing the drama from various points of view, 
says: “Another advantage belongs to the 
stage—one which seems to have become ac- 
knowledged even by its censurers. Its in- 
fluence on intellectual and moral character, 
which we have till now been advocating, may 
be doubted, but its very enemies have admitted 
that it has gained the palm over other means 
of amusement. It has been of much higher 
service here than people are often ready to 
allow. 

“Human nature cannot always bear to be 
on the human rack of business and the charms 
of sense die out with their gratification. Man, 
oppressed with appetites, weary of long exer- 
tion, thirsts for refined pleasure or rushes into 
dissipations that hasten his fall and ruin and 
disturb social order. Bacchanal joys, gam- 
bling, follies of all sorts, are unavoidable if the 
lawgiver provides nothing better. A man of 
public business, who has made a noble sacri- 


[8] 


NEW INTEREST IN DRAMA 


fice to the state, is apt to pay for it with melan- 
choly, the scholar to become a pedant, and the 
people brutish without the stage. The stage 
is an institution combining amusement with in- 
struction, rest with exertion, where no faculty 
of the mind is overstrained, no pleasure en- 
joyed at the cost of the whole. 

Changing Attitude of the Church—The 
Church has been slower than other institu- 


29 +5 


tions to reemploy the educative power of the 
drama, a power it employed centuries ago; 
but it is beginning to regain its lost inheritance. 
While the Church has been chary of dramatic 
art and its artists, it is coming to realize that 
this form of art and religion belong together 
by identities of its origin, subject matter, and 
inner experience. The principal subject mat- 
ter of the world’s artistic treasures is religion. 
There have been leaders of the Church who 
have felt that dramatic representation is purely 
a temperamental delusion and unrelated to the 
solid facts of life. Asa result of this attitude, 


5 Schiller, Essay, “The Stage as a Moral Institution.” 


[9] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


ancient and medieval feeling for beauty has 
been all but extinguished. 
For ill can poetry express 
Full many a tone of thought sublime, 
And painting, mute and motionless, 
Steals but a glance of time; 
But by the mighty actor brought, 
Illusions perfect triumphs come; 


Verse ceases to be airy thought 
And sculpture to be dumb. 


The Church is beginning again to express 
a frank appreciation of the tremendous po- 
tential force in the dramatic presentation of 
religious themes. The whole history of re- 
ligion, the entire garment of the intense inner 
drama of agony, despair, hope, attainments, 
shows that feeling is the eternal spring of 
religious vitality. It seems right to give body 
and substance to feeling through dramatic use 
of biblical stories and characters, knowing as 
we do that childhood’s dramatic instinct is at 
the root of the creative forces of life. The 
Bible should be interpreted in terms of feel- 
[10] 


NEW INTEREST IN DRAMA 


ing, Inasmuch as feeling is in itself activity, 
and in feeling action is already begun.° 

There is an increasing use in religious edu- 
cation of methods formerly used only in sec- 
ular education. “Too frequently religious 
education has been regarded as a thing apart, 
as a certain kind of education distinct from all 
others, or as the education of a certain section 
of human nature distinct from other sections. 
Of course, this view of religious education be- 
longs logically with a certain view of religion; 
namely, as something apart from the ordinary 
and usual life and interests of man, or as 
something dealing with a distinct element in 
his nature, or as something foreign that has 
to be grafted into his unreligious nature. 
Rather is religious education the natural and 
logical conclusion of all education, just as re- 
ligion is the natural and complete expression 
of man’s being.” * 


6 Heniger, The Kingdom of the Child, Chap. XII. 
7 Horne, Pedagogical Principles of Education, p. 333. 


[11] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


When a child is presented to our churches 
for religious training he is neither a child minus 
nor a child plus. He comes to the church 
school with the same native equipment, the 
same tools for learning, and gives the same 
normal reactions as in the public schools. 
“They tell us that the same powers of mind 
are used in unfolding the religious conscious- 
ness, apprehending religious knowledge, de- 
veloping religious emotions, and arriving at 
religious decisions that apply in other forms 
of experience; and that, therefore, the genetic 
psychology of religion must govern the treat- 
ment accorded the child in his religious life.” * 
Many of our church leaders are recognizing 
the truth of this statement and are undertaking 
to apply the scientific principles of general 
education to the teaching of religion. 

There is, too, a growing insistence that nar- 
row interpretation and rigid dogma must give 
way to the appeal for a broader, more uni- 
versal acceptance of the truths of Christianity. 


8 Betts, The New Program of Religious Education, p. 24. 


[12] 


NEW INTEREST IN DRAMA 


Even traditional theology is being made to 
conform to modern psychology. Our religious 
leaders are recognizing that the task of teach- 
ing religion and morals is such as to compel the 
use of every possible vehicle of appeal. 


DANGERS ATTENDING THE MOVEMENT 


Like all movements or revivals of move- 
ments the revival of the dramatic element 1s 
fraught with dangers. The verdict is not yet 
in as to whether the dramatic program in the 
Church is an ephemeral fad or a permanent ac- 
quisition. But at least it has grown with the 
rapidity of Jonah’s gourd. With character- 
istic impetuosity churches as well as other or- 
ganizations have rushed headlong into this 
new movement. Many good people in their 
enthusiastic use of dramatic activities have 
been the greatest enemies to the movement. 
Before one can make skillful use of any device 
he must know the aim—the end to be attained. 
To briefly state it, the aim is to capture the 

[13] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


dramatic impulse and direct it toward life 
processes. ‘This aim involves a knowledge of 
two things. First, one must understand the 
psychological basis and the nature of this dra- 
matic instinct and its expression in different 
stages of development. Second, one must 
have a knowledge of the necessary technique. 
While the program of religious education does 
not have a place for the expression of art 
simply for art’s sake, it must not be handi- 
capped by having the technique so poor that 
the production is offensive. Art for art’s sake 
does not carry a message. On the other hand 
a crude presentation cannot be of great edu- 
cational value. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Community Drama and Pageantry, Yale University 
Press, 1916. 

Heniger, Alice Herts, The Kingdom of the Child, E. P. 
Dutton Co., 1918. 

Lee, Joseph, Play in Education, Macmillan Co., 1922. 


[14] 


CHAPTER ITI 
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


PRIMITIVE DRAMATICS 


Until recently drama has been looked upon 
as an expression of civilization. Modern in- 
vestigation has shown, however, that it is one 
of the oldest of the arts, movement and ges- 
ture doubtless antedating the spoken word. 
Extended study of primitive society shows 
that there was hardly a time so remote or a 
branch of the family so primitive that ex- 
pression of the dramatic impulse was not 
given. In some form it has been expressed 
by practically allraces. The primitive peoples 
sought relations with imaginary environment, 
with gods, ghosts, and spirits. Havemeyer 
uses the terms “unconscious” and “conscious” 
drama. He defines unconscious drama as 
“the crude manner in which the primitive man 


[15] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


gratified his desires by religious ceremonies, 
rites, by acting in his crude manner the stories 
of his everyday life, myths and legends. Con- 
scious drama—the results after man’s feelings 
had become so refined that he could express 
them in a form of a definite play.” * 

This dramatic expression fulfilled a twofold 
purpose for these primitive peoples. First, 
it gave a sensation which was similar to real 
experience. Second, it enabled them to give 
their impressions to others. It is here that 
drama has its real origin in the expression of 
ideas which cannot be conveyed by other 
means. ‘The life of the primitive man was a 
continued struggle, not only with nature but 
with men. The religious sympathetic cere- 
monies were his means of trying to over- 
come unfavorable forces and his efforts to 
recommend himself in a favorable way to the 
Controller of Destinies. 

Religious Ceremonies.—Religious passion 
was at the heart of all primitive dramatic ex- 


1 Havemeyer, Drama of Savage People, p. 6. 


[16] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


pression. Such dramatic expressions served 
the purpose of worship and prayer. ‘Through 
them the worshipers made known their desires. 
If they wanted rain they had a certain cere- 
mony that was supposed to acquaint their deity 
with the fact. They had a wide range of dra- 
matic rites and observances through which they 
hoped to gain the good will of the gods. 
Through these dramatic activities they taught 
also their standards of morality. In fact, the 
most we know of primitive people has come 
to us through the study of their folk and re- 
ligious festivals. The temples of the old 
Egyptians, as they stand to-day, tell us of 
great religious ceremonies, processions, and 
festivals which were but dramatic representa- 
tions of their attitude toward their god. 
They beautifully expressed their beliefs in the 
eternal life by the annual burial and resur- 
rection of Osiris.” 

Japan.—In Japan also the drama had its 
beginning in the religious impulse and was 


2 Renouf, Religion of Ancient Egypt. 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


closely connected with religious rites and cere- 
monies. An old legend relates that in the 
ninth century B. c. Japan was visited by a vio- 
lent earthquake in the province of Yamato. 
Poisonous vapors came from the deep and 
spread death and destruction everywhere. 
The priests conceived the idea of performing 
a religious ceremony consisting of symbolic 
dances and incantations on a grass-covered hill 
outside of the temple. At once the vapor 
vanished and peace and comfort were restored. 
The Japanese believe this was the origin of 
Japanese drama. It is interesting to note 
that Shibia-Ya, the word meaning theater in 
Japan, is a combination of Shibia, meaning 
house or temple, and Ya, meaning sod. Until 
this day the great miracles of Yamato are cele- 
brated with the same religious dance as an in- 
troduction to every performance. An actor 
dressed like an old priest appears at the com- 
mencement of each play, swings his fan, and 
performs a rhythmic dance, while a chorus im- 
plores the mercy of the saving divinities in 


[18] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


plaintive and mystic songs.? While the Jap- 
anese never developed drama as did the Greeks, 
the primitive drama of these two peoples was 
not unlike. The profession of actor in Japan 
was a noble one and of a religious character.* 
India.—The origin of Indian drama was un- 
mistakably religious. There are many legends 
which attribute the origin of Indian drama to 
a divine source. The Indians themselves be- 
lieve that the inventor was Baharata, a mythi- 
cal person, who in order to amuse the gods 
performed dances and plays in which Gan- 
dharvas (demigods, warlike and fond of 
women) and Apsarasas (beautiful tempting 
demigoddesses who delighted the gods and 
saints with their songs and dances) figured as 
actors and actresses. As early as the Vedas, 
singing and dancing formed an essential part 
of the Indian worship. The worshipers per- 
formed a rhythmic dance around the altar, 
lifting their arms toward the sky, bowing to- 


3 Karl Mantzius, History of Theatrical Art, Vol. 1, p. 47. 
4 Brinkley, Japan: Its History, Arts, and Literature. 


[19] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


ward the east, kneeling before the fire, and 
accompanying the ceremony with mute sym- 
bolic gestures, the meaning and detail of which 
is written in still existing manuals for the 
priests. Even at the present day, no Indian 
religious worship is complete without a solemn 
dance performed as an introduction.” 'The 
Indian drama bears every evidence of re- 
ligious origin. Every production begins with 
a prayer or blessing, which has nothing what- 
ever to do with the subject of the play; it is 
simply a religious exhortation, which runs as 
follows: 


Isa preserve you! he who is revealed 

In these eight forms by man perceptible— 
Water, of all creation’s work the first; 

The Fire that bears on high the sacrifice 
Presented with solemnity to heaven; 

The priest, the holy offerer of gifts; 

The Sun, the Moon, those two majestic orbs, 
Eternal marshallers of day and night; 

The subtle Ether, vehicle of sound, 
Diffused throughout the boundless universe ; 


The Earth, by sages called “The place of birth 


5 Will, History of British India, Vol. II, p. 266. 


[20] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


Of all material essences and thing's’; 
And Air which giveth life to all who breathe! 
(Free translation by Monier Williams) ° 


Indian drama has thus always maintained its 
religious character, and the actors of the better 
class have always been rated highly. 
Greece.—The original form of the Greek 
drama was that of religious worship. While 
the Greeks were the first to produce a perfect 
drama, in the beginning theirs had the same 
crude origin as that of other primitive peoples 
—song and dance and revelry made in honor 
of a deity who was to be pleased with the 
demonstration. Whatever the Greeks at- 
tempted to do they accomplished better than 
their contemporaries. The drama they have 
passed on to others was so beautified, so trans- 
figured with their own touch, that it is often 
difficult to recognize the primitive form. 
From very early times Dionysus, god of 
wine, was worshiped, particularly in the spring 
when life started anew and in the fall when the 


6 Kar] Mantzius, History of Theatrical Art, Vol. I, pp. 63ff. 


[21] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


harvest was gathered and wine was again made 
from the luscious fruit. There is reason to 
believe that at first human sacrifices were 
made; but early. in prehistoric times this cus- 
tom was abandoned. Since Dionysus was 
thought to be attended by a company of 
satyrs—half men, half goats—the goat was re- 
garded as an acceptable offering. While the 
goat was sacrificed and rites observed in honor 
of the loved god, troops of merrymakers 
dressed as satyrs formed a procession and 
circled around the priest. Audiences came 
with garlands on their heads as to a religious 
ceremony. ‘The chief seats were occupied by 
the priests. The poets who wrote the plays 
and the choregi who paid for them, as well as 
the actors and players who performed them, 
were all looked upon as ministers of religion. 
The theater itself possessed all the sanctity of 
a temple. The religious significance of these 
festivals was never lost sight of. Throughout 
the independence of the ancient Greeks the 
best seat was reserved for the priests of 
[22] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


Dionysus, while any disturbance occurring 
during the sacred celebration was severely 
punished as an affront to the deity himself. 
Not only did Greek drama have its beginning 
in the religious impulse but it retained its re- 
ligious character to the end.‘ 


DRAMA IN THE FARLY CHRISTIAN CHURCH 


Inimical Attitude of Moral Pagans.—lIt 
seems strange, indeed, that the drama, born of 
the Church and nourished by the Church, came 
in time, as it acquired independent life and 
gradually passed from sacred to secular uses, 
to incur the resentful hostility of the Church 
whose child it was. While it was in Rome that 
the cry against the drama waxed loudest in 
early centuries, even in beauty-loving Hellas 
also there was sentiment against dramatic 
representation. It is said that at one time 
Salon on meeting the car of Thespis, the 
founder of Greek tragedy, said, “Are you not 


7 Donaldson, Theatre of the Greeks, pp. 288ff. Haigh, 
The Attic Theatre, pp. 1ff. 


[23 ] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


ashamed to tell so many lies?” The man of 
truth, Lycurgus, would allow no theatre in 
Sparta.® 

In the dawning days of Christianity the Ro- 
man theatre had sunk to its lowest depths. 
Romans cared but little for the literary value 
of drama, neither did they care for it as a fine 
art. They desired something more spectac- 
ular and sensuous with much crude humor. 
This desire was expressed in the brutality of 
the gladiatorial combats and in the extreme 
realism of barbarity and lust presented on the 
stage, all of which forced a feeling of revolt 
on the part of moral pagans. For, sunk as 
they were in morals and fond as they were of 
these scenes of vice, enough sense of good was 
left in them to at least recognize evil. They 
expressed disapproval in certain restrictions. 
The profession of actor (senict) was made dis- 
honorable in the eyes of Roman law. Actors 
were branded with infamia, incapacitated for 
civil rights (which meant they could neither 


8 Bates, The English Religious Drama, p. 2. 
[24] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


vote nor hold office). If men, they were re- 
fused the right to appear as attorneys; if 
women, to employ an attorney. In some 
places they were not allowed to bring criminal 
action. Senators and the sons of senators 
were forbidden to marry a woman who had 
been, or whose parents had been, on the stage.° 
Men like Horace, Propertius, and even Ovid 
saw Clearly the loathsomeness of the Roman 
stage. Marcus Aurelius lessened the pay of 
the actors as a registration of his disapproval. 
Julian issued a strict injunction to the priests 
of the sun to avoid the theatre, which he des- 
paired of reforming.*° 

Inimical Attitude of Early Christians —If 
such doubts were inspired by the Roman drama 
of this period on the part of moral pagans, it 
is not surprising that the leaders of the early 
Christian Church should have taken still 
stronger grounds and have headed a crusade 
against the stage. It utterly condemned the 


9 Kar] Chambers, Medieval Stage, Vol. I, p. 7. 
10 Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Vol. I. 


p. 49. 
[25] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


stage, scorned the actors, and made an ear- 
nest attempt to uproot the evil. 

In the second century Titian described the 
actor as a man who “is one thing internally, 
but outwardly counterfeits what he is not.” * 
At approximately the same time Tertullian 
wrote his treatise, De Spectaculis, really lead- 
ing the attack against the Roman theatre. He 
says, “The author of truth hates all the false; 
He regards as adultery all that is unreal. 
Condemning as He does hypocrisy in every 
form, He will never approve any putting on 
of voice, or sex, or age; He never will approve 
pretended loves, and wraths and groans and 
tears.” 1° One is made to exclaim, “Did Ter- 
tullian have no imagination?” He maintained 
that plays were never actually forbidden by 
the Scriptures, but showed how contrary they 
were to the first verse of the Psalms and to 
Christ’s life and teaching. From this he rea- 
soned that they were not “consistent with true 


11 Titian, Address to the Greeks. 
i2 Tertullian, De Spectaculis, p. 30. 


[26 | 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


religion and true obedience to the true God.” ** 
All public spectacles, in his opinion, were 
based on idolatry. Hence all plays were in- 
cluded among the pomps of the devil re- 
nounced by Christians at the time of baptism. 
He says, “ .. . it may be grand or mean, no 
matter, any circus procession whatever is offen- 
sive to God.” ** ‘Tertullian then proceeds to 
discuss the moral depravity of plays. He re- 
fers to the theatre as “immodesty’s own pecu- 
liar abode, where nothing is in repute but what 
elsewhere is disreputed.” '* His hostile con- 
clusion is: “Never and nowhere is that free 
from blame which God ever condemns; never 
and nowhere is it right to do what you may 
not do at all times and all places.” ** He 
closes his appeal with a picture of the joys of 
the Christian life. “If the literature of the 
stage delights you, we have literature in 
abundance of our own ... would you have 
18 [bid., p. 28. 
14 Ibid., p. 12. 


15 [bid., p. 24. 
16 Tbid., p. 25. 


[27] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


also fightings and wrestlings? Well, of these 
there is no lacking, and they are not of slight 
account. Behold unchastity overcome by 
chastity, perfidy slain by faithfulness, cruelty 
stricken by compassion, imprudence thrown 
into the shade by modesty; these are the con- 
tests we have among us and in these we win 
our crowns. But would ye have something of 
blood too? We have Christ’s.” *7 

Thus at the very beginning the opposition 
of Christianity was felt in all its force and com- 
pleteness. The words of Tertullian have been 
used to represent the real feeling of the early 
Christians against the stage. It is to be de- 
plored that these early Christian worthies did 
not distinguish between the noble and the les- 
ser elements of drama. ‘They involved all its 
manifestations in a consistent condemnation, as 
is evidenced in Tertullian’s De S pectaculis. 

In the fourth century the attacks on the the- 
ater were redoubled. Augustine and Chrys- 


17 Ibid., p. 34. 


[28] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


ostom led in this attack and were uncompro- 
mising in their attitude. While it seemed 
hardly possible to forbid Christians to’ enter 
the theatre, an absolute prohibition was estab- 
lished for the clergy. The laymen could not 
attend on Sunday and on ecclesiastical festival 
days on threat of excommunication. Later a 
law was passed forbidding performances on 
Sunday and during more sacred periods of the 
Christian calendar.*® No Christian might be 
an actor or marry an actor. No actor could 
be baptized without renouncing his profession. 
Actresses and their daughters could not quit 
the unhappy profession to which they were 
born. Actors and actresses were forbidden to 
wear gold and rich fabrics, or to ape the dress 
of nuns. ‘They were to avoid the company of 
Christian women and boys. They could not 
appear in public places or walk the streets at- 
tended by slaves carrying folding chairs. 


18 Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, Vol. V. 


p. 106. 
[29] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Their portraits were not to be shown for fear 
they might pollute the neighborhood where 
they were seen. 

With the fall of the Roman Empire, the 
drama as a living form of art was completely 
extinguished. 'The process of natural decay 
was accelerated by the hostility of Christianity. 

When the Church, in abhorrence of the foul 
stage of imperial Rome, set its face against 
the theatre, it reckoned without two very 
powerful forces: first, the dramatic impulse 
whose roots run deep in the human race; 
second, the essentially dramatic nature of the 
Christian story and of Christian worship. No 
story is within itself more powerfully dramatic 
than that embodied in the Christian tradition 
during its early centuries. The appearance on 
the earth of a divine companion of humanity, 
His conflict with the powers of evil, culminat- 
ing in the climax of apparent failure and de- 
feat on Good Friday, followed by the dramatic 
reversal in the triumph of Easter morning,— 
here was a subject full of dramatic possibilities 

[30] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


for the Christian dramatist; and the form it 
was to take was determined by the nature of 
Christian worship. 

Liturgical and Mystery Plays.—In view of 
the uncompromising attitude of the Church 
and the continued protest on the part of the 
clergy against drama, it is most remarkable 
that there was a singular new birth of drama 
within the bosom of the Church. It must be 
remembered, however, that there never was 
any thought of Christianizing the theatre. 
Consequently the new Christian drama was 
not in any wise related to the drama of an- 
tiquity, but derived from an entirely inde- 
pendent origin in the service of the Church 
itself. Once more it sprang from the people 
and as before grew out of the religious im- 
pulse. One may look at this new drama as 
he will, as an audacious and, at least, partially 
successful attempt to wrest the pomps of the 
devil to a religious service, or as a forced step 
to attract people to Christianity, or as an in- 
evitable reaction from barring a deep human 


[31] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


urge which even Christians themselves pos- 
sessed. 

As early as the fifth century, in order to 
increase the attractions of worship, living pic- 
tures accompanied with songs were used on 
special occasions to illustrate the gospel narra- 
tive. Latin, the language of the Church and 
its service, was unknown to the people in 
general. The masses were grossly ignorant, 
realizing little except what they witnessed with 
their eyes. Consequently, the priesthood had 
to devise a way to bring home to the wor- 
shipers the meaning of the Bible—a_ book 
which they did not possess and which, had they 
possessed it, they could not have read. The 
idea of acting out a portion of a scriptural les- 
son was therefore eagerly seized upon; and 
thus a certain amount of action was introduced 
into the service. ‘To this were added lyric 
and epic accompaniments together with certain 
musical adjuncts; and the liturgical mystery, 
which was the earliest form of Christian drama, 
came into existence. 

[32] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


The liturgical drama was well developed not 
later than the tenth century, when it was cus- 
tomary for the priests to take the place of 
actors in presenting the birth, life, and passion 
of Jesus as set forth in the gospel narrative. 
These mystery plays dealt with scriptural 
events only. ‘They set forth the central mys- 
tery of the redemption of the world as accom- 
plished by the nativity, the passion, and resur- 
rection of Christ. This type of religious 
drama reached its height during the middle of 
the thirteenth century. 

The Miracle Plays.—Strictly speaking, the 
miracle plays were concerned only with the 
lives of the saints. The Bible no longer re- 
mained the only source of information; but the 
legends which had grown up with the people 
were rich in material for dramatic presenta- 
tion. This type of drama flourished in Eng- 
land during the thirteenth and fourteenth cen- 
turies. The religious drama no longer neces- 
sarily grew out of a particular act of worship, 
but was written independently and might be 

[33] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


attached to any service. As soon as the plays 
began to free themselves from the limitations 
set by their original position in the liturgy, it 
was natural that dramatists should capitalize 
their literary and dramatic possibilities. Hila- 
rius of England wrote the first play of this 
kind, Daniel. Later he wrote St. Nicholas 
and Lazarus. These later two contained a 
distinctly comic element. ‘So long as drama 
was strictly confined to the liturgy comic ele- 
ments were eliminated. This release gave rise 
to the development of humor which was ex- 
pressed in such plays as The Feast of Fools, 
The Boy Bishop, and The Feast of the Ass. 
Immediately there was a protest against this 
type of drama being given in the church and 
it received the rebuke of those in authority. 
Pope Innocent III in 1207 formally pro- 
hibited such plays to be given in the church. 
The attitude of the clergy toward the 
dramatic performance could not be uniform. 
As the plays grew longer and their para- 
phernalia more extensive, the spectators be- 
[34] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


came more numerous and came to include non- 
church-members, and the vernacular took the 
place of the Latin. Miracles were less de- 
pendent on the use of church services than the 
mysteries proper. Law associations, guilds, 
and schools began to act plays in honor of — 
their patron saints. As scenes and characters 
of more trivial nature were admitted into the 
plays, the comic element increased and the 
plays became less sacred. They ceased to be 
enacted in the churches alone, but were taken 
to the churchyard, later to the village green, 
and finally to the village streets. ‘The clergy 
was still active in the directing and writing 
of such plays. They even acted in them 
masqued. Even as late as 13878 a number of 
clergymen petitioned Richard II to forbid 
uneducated and irreligious people from acting 
in scenes taken from the Old Testament, which 
would seem to indicate that they still con- 
sidered them religious in character. 

The Moralities—The moral play owes its 
origin to the spirit that introduced the al- 

[35] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


legorical tendencies in religious literature, 
namely, the effort to illustrate moral doctrines 
and abstract ideas in bodily form. Virtues 
and vices, mental faculties, inclinations, and 
moral and evil influences were the persons of 
the moral play. ‘These plays included such 
conceptions as the fall of man, and thus that 
of the human race. This allegorical drama 
developed into the real living drama which now 
draws its material from active human life. 
With the coming and flourishing of the 
moral play came the complete separation of 
the Church and the play, in consequence of 
which the rank assigned to drama was again 
lowered and the Church returned to her primi- 
tive opinion. The clergy once more became 
hostile to dramatic presentation, and in Eng- 
land an active campaign was started by the 
Church against the stage, which was no less 
forceful than the one led by the early Chris- 
tians. The sacraments of the Church were de- 
nied to actors, even on their death-bed, unless 
they solemnly promised that in case of rex 
[36 | 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


covery they would not resume their occupa- 
tion. Actors who refused or died suddenly 
were buried as suicides. Moliére, against 
whom the priests had a special grudge, in 
his dying moments vainly sought the consola- 
tion of the Church. The command of the 
king was necessary to obtain Christian burial 
for him.*® There were many tracts written 
against the stage as strong as Tertullian’s De 
S pectaculis. 

It is interesting to note that Luther spoke 
in a sane manner concerning the stage. He 
says, “Christians need not entirely shun com- 
edies, because occasionally coarse expressions 
and knavish deeds are found in them, as for 
this cause some might even refuse to read the 
Bible.” °° 

The Puritans later led in this crusade. 
They denounced every spectacle as a pomp of 
the devil. They considered that a true Chris- 
tian could have no time for worldly pleasures, 


19 Kar] Hase, Miracle Plays, p. 177. 
20 Luther, Table Talk (quoted by Karl Hase, Miracle Plays, 


p. 185). 
[37] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


that he has no pleasure in vain delights, that 
his joy lies in attendance at Church, in fer- 
vent prayer, in the study of the Holy Scrip- 
tures, in singing of Psalms, and in godly 
converse with his pious friends. The early 
Puritan Parliament ruled in 1635 that all 
spectacles were prohibited and were amuse- 
ments invented by the devil. Every player 
who continued to act in spite of this decree 
was to be scourged by the hangman, and every 
spectator was to be fined five shillings. 


THE AMERICAN CHURCH AND DRAMA 


Thus the Puritans actively opposed drama 
and their influence was felt in both England 
and America. There are conflicting accounts 
as to when drama first made its appearance 
in America. An apparently authentic ac- 
count states that the first play was presented 
in Williamsburg, Virginia, by the Hallam 
Company from England. It was gladly re- 
ceived. ‘The company had in its repertoire 

[38] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


Shakespearean plays and English comedies. 
Hallam, highly satisfied with his reception in 
Wilhamsburg, went to Boston, where he was 
given a frigid reception. ‘The crusade against 
dramatic representation was led by Sewall, 
whose name has been made famous because of 
his connection with the “Salem Witchcraft.” 
The discussion concerning dramatic presen- 
tation was extended from the clergy to those 
in civil authority with the result that a law 
was passed authorizing the opening of theatres 
in Boston. The statute contained a special 
clause forbidding performance of plays on 
Saturday night as the Sabbath began at sun- 
down. ‘This clause caused the introduction of 
the matinée. This law was held in full force 
for many years. When Hallam and his com- 
pany went later to Philadelphia, he found the 
city divided into two hostile camps. ‘The 
Quakers carried a petition to Governor Hamil- 
ton requesting him to forbid public perform- 
ances. ‘The friends of drama also petitioned 
the governor to permit these performances. 
[39] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


The friends of drama won. Governor Hamil- 
ton gave permission “if nothing immoral or 
indecent was presented.” 

The playwrights were entirely conscious of 
the inimical attitude on the part of the church- 
man and sought to ridicule that attitude in 
their dramatic presentations. This is _per- 
haps the reason that the clergy is often por- 
trayed on the stage in a ridiculous light. The 
first American play, Contrast, written by 
Royal Tyler and performed in 1786, gave evi- 
dence of thorough knowledge of the attitude 
of Churchmen and sought to play it up in a 
ridiculous light. In this play appears the fol- 
lowing dialogue: 

Jennie: So, Mr. Jonathan, I hear you were at the 
play last night. 

JonaTHan: At the play! Why, do you think I 
went to the devil’s drawing-room? 

Jennie: The devil’s drawing-room! 

JONATHAN: Yes; why, ain't cards and dice the 
devil’s device? And the play shop where the devil 
hangs out his vanities of the world upon the tenter-hooks 


of temptation? I believe you have not heard how they 
were acting the old boy one night, and the wicked one 


[40] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


came among them, sure enough, and went right off in 
a storm and carried one quarter of the playhouse with 
him. Oh, no, no, no, you won't catch me at a playhouse, 
I warrant you. 

(Jennie finally discovers that Jonathan was 
at the playhouse, because of the vivid descrip- 
tion he gives of a play he saw.) 


JENNIE: You certainly were at the playhouse. 

JonatHan: Marcy on my soul! Did I see the 
wicked players? Mayhap, that ere Darby I liked so, 
was the old serpent himself and had the cloven foot in 
his pocket. Why, I vow, now I come to think on’t, the 
candle seemed to burn blue, and I’m sure where I sat 
it smelt tarnally of brimstone. 


The question continued to concern both the 
civil and religious authorities. Southwark 
Theater in Pennsylvania burned mysteriously 
in 1821. Many good people felt this was 
an expression of God’s displeasure. Conse- 
quently a bill was presented to the State Legis- 
lature forbidding the erection of more play- 
houses, stages, and scaffolds. General An- 
thony Wayne asked that “playhouses” be 
stricken out inasmuch as the stage was unl- 


[41] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


versally recognized as an efficient engine for 
the improvement of morals. 

From the earliest colonial days, both the 
laymen and the clergy had been a unit in 
their opposition to the stage. But at length, 
there developed on the part of the clergy, and 
later of the laity, something of the liberal at- 
titude exhibited by General Wayne. ‘The 
voice which marked the beginning of this tran- 
sition was a lonely one. In 1853 Henry W. 
Bellows, a prominent Unitarian minister noted 
for his public spirit, preached a sermon on 
“Theatrical Amusements” in which he ap- 
proved the stage, not only as a legitimate 
popular entertainment, but also, if properly 
conducted, as an efficient means of instruction 
in morals and manners. An actor, Cornelius 
Logan, impressed by this utterance, said, “The 
Pulpit too often depicts virtue in austere and 
forbidding colors and strips her of every at- 
tractive grace. The path of duty is made a 
rugged and toilsome way—narrow and steep; 
and the fainting pilgrim is sternly forbidden 

[42] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


to turn aside his bleeding feet to tread even 
for a moment the paths of pleasure. The 
Stage paints virtue in her holiday garments; 
though storms gather around her radiant head, 
the countenance of the heavenly maid, resigned, 
serene and meek beams forth, after a season 
of patient suffering, with ineffable refulgence. 
Vice constantly wears his hideous features, and, 
in the sure, inevitable punishment of the 
guilty, we behold a type of that eternal Justice, 
before whose fiat the purest of us shall tremble 
when the curtain falls on the great drama of 
life.’ Others, especially among the clergy, 
responded very differently to Bellows’ posi- 
tion. There was but little difference of 
opinion in the Church, especially among the 
clergy. With few exceptions they presented 
a solid front in the denunciation of dramatic 
presentation. ‘Thus we see the relationship 
between the Church and the drama in America 
was in the beginning very different from that 
which existed in Europe, where drama was 
born in the Church and was later separated 


[43] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


fromit. From the very beginning, the Church 
of America opposed the stage. Because of 
these influences we have come to think tradi- 
tionally of drama_as productive of only evil 
or, in its milder forms, as simply a means of 
pleasure. Many of the clergy still feel that 
attendance at the theatre retards one’s spiritual 
development, while others feel that to see a 
good play which presents the moral law in 
action induces better moral living and larger 
spiritual expansion. These same people see 
in the sacraments of the Church a dramatiza- 
tion of spiritual experiences and desire to ex- 
pand its uses. 

Since the beginning of the present century, 
drama has been increasingly used in the 
Church. A large number of pageants and 
plays has been written for church use. 
Courses in religious dramatics have been of- 
fered in training classes, camps, community 
schools, and a very few colleges and universi- 
ties. The Church is now in process of provid- 
ing a trained leadership in the use of drama. 


[44] 


HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 


Thus we see that there have been two com- 
plete cycles of dramatic expression. Each 
time it had its rise in the religious impulse and 
served as a means of religious expression and 
teaching. Each time it was disowned by the 
Church. It was a characteristic of those who 
objected to dramatic representation altogether 
that they rarely gave any consideration to the 
origin of drama, to its close relation to the re- 
ligious impulse, to its long continuance. It 
has sprung up spontaneously among different 
peoples. It existed in a very early period in 
Japan, India, Greece, and elsewhere. Drama 
has its origin in human nature and will con- 
tinue to express itself in one form or another as 
long as the human race continues. The Amer- 
ican Church first opposed, then tolerated, then 
recognized, and is now using drama. Drama 
has once again been called to the service of the 
Church as a means of teaching spiritual truths. 
Its future in the Church cannot be forecasted. 
It is dependent upon the wisdom and discrim- 
ination with which the method is used. It is 


[45] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


our duty to discover the laws governing the de- 
velopment of this deep-seated impulse and to 
utilize it for purposes of educational and spir- 
itual achievement... 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Bates, Katherine Lee, English Religious Drama, Mac- 
millan Co., 1917. 

Chambers, E. K., Medieval Stage, Book II, Clarendon 
Press, Oxford. 


[46] 


CHAPTER III 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS OF THE 
DRAMATIC IMPULSE 


DRAMATIC IMPULSE PART OF THE 
INDIVIDUAL’S EQUIPMENT 


Any system of education to be effective 
must take account of the native equipment and 
of the dominant impulses and drives in each 
stage of development and must seek to stimu- 
late, control, and direct these toward a definite 
end. ‘The dramatic impulse seems to have its 
basis in native equipment and thus becomes a 
tool for learning. It finds expression early 
in the life of the individual as well as in the 
early development of the human race. It ts 
based upon certain fundamental urges of child- 
hood—imitation, expression, construction, mo- 
tor activity, and desire for approval. There 
is hardly a text-book on psychology that does 

[47] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


not devote considerable space to the discussion 
of these elemental urges and the part they 
play in individual development. Imitation 
has long been recognized as an important fac- 
tor in human life. But the full scope and 
pregnancy of this impulse of man has been 
generally recognized only in comparatively 
recent years. By imitation is meant the tend- 
ency to repeat the thoughts and acts of an- 
other. ‘The desire to imitate shows itself very 
early in children the world over. MacCunn 
describes imitation “as one of the earliest, 
deepest, and most tenacious of human in- 
stincts.’”* ‘Thorndike writes, “Among the 
most numerous and the most important causes 
of the ideas producing action in a human be- 
ing are the acts of other human beings. Man- 
ners, accents, the usages of languages, the 
style of dress and appearance—in a word, the 
minor phases of human behavior—are guided 
almost exclusively by them. ‘They also con- 
trol the morals, business habits, political ac- 


1 MacCunn, The Making of Character, p. 128. 


[48] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


tion of many men on many occasions, as the 
physical environment decides in a large meas- 
ure what he shall do or feel.” ? 


EXPRESSION OF DRAMATIC IMPULSE IN ALL 
STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 


Kirkpatrick gives a lengthy discussion of the 
dramatic impulse, its genetic development and 
expression. He distinguishes five different 
types: reflex, spontaneous, dramatic, volun- 
tary, and idealistic. We will discuss only the 
three types generally recognized: reflex, spon- 
taneous, and dramatic.* A cross-section will 
be taken of the three types as they may appear 
in different stages of development. This di- 
vision is for the purpose of analysis only. The 
discussion proceeds throughout in recognition 
of the principle of the unity of life; namely, 
that between the successive stages there is no 
sharp line of demarcation. 

Infancy.—Reflex imitation is shown when a 


2 Thorndike, Elements of Psychology, p. 288. 
3 Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals of Child Study, Chap. VIII. 


[49] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


child is caused to do something toward which 
he has a psychological tendency by perceiving 
the act performed by another. Yawning, cry- 
ing, laughing, and_other emotional expressions 
which may be produced by children in the 
first year and a half are of this class. Re- 
flex imitation is later obscured but it remains 
through life as an important form of sugges- 
tion. 

Imitation becomes spontaneous when acts 
not provided by other urges are reproduced 
without any purpose other than the all suffi- 
cient and unconscious one of an impulse to re- 
produce and experience subjectively what has 
been observed objectively. Nothing in his en- 
vironment, physical or social, escapes a child’s 
notice; he absorbs and makes it a part of him- 
self by reproducing, and thus getting a sub- 
jective knowledge of it. He desires for him- 
self the “feel” of what he sees. For the first 
three or four years this form of imitation is 
dominant. Its expression evidences a concern 
with new acquisitions. Reflex imitation is 


[50] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


often combined with it, as when a tone in which 
a word is uttered is reproduced as well as its 
pronunciation. In no case, however, is spon- 
taneous imitation analytic or synthetic. It is 
always of wholes, large or small. 

The value of this spontaneous imitation lies 
in the great amount of material accumulated 
in the form of knowledge and in power of 
movement which may be used, analyzed, and 
combined and then used in future actions for 
a purpose. The knowledge thus acquired is 
of wide extent and of most fundamental char- 
acter, for it is subjective as well as objective. 
The child learns to identify movements and 
sounds not only as they are seen and heard, but 
also as they are felt when they are performed 
or uttered. He can not only recognize them 
but also control them. ‘Thus by spontaneous 
imitation he makes the world his own and ob- 
tains control of it. 

Nothing is imitated that does not attract 
attention. Attention is determined by the 
prominent drives or experiences as they appear 


[51] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


in the life of the developing child. Hence, 
the spontaneous imitations of each age are an 
indication of the stage of development that 
has been reached. 

At about three years of age the child seems 
to be surfeited with taking into himself and 
reproducing from his surroundings. ‘There 
seem also to appear contrary suggestions 
which, at more or less frequent intervals, con- 
trol action. He, therefore, has to be identified 
with whatever he has imitated and he refuses 
to copy exactly after the model set before 
him. He demands the opportunity for origi- 
nality. This is due to the urge for self- 
assertion. Spontaneous imitation develops 
not only by becoming more complete, and be- 
ing concerned with more complex acts, but 
by appearing to respond to mental images as 
well as to direct perception. The immediacy 
of the model is no longer necessary; but 
words, gestures, and processes observed yes- 
terday are reproduced to-day as spontaneously 

[52] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


and accurately as if just observed and per- 
ceived. 

The Dramatic Age.—Dramatic expression 
begins when the stage of spontaneous imita- 
tion is attained. Dramatic imitations are not 
clearly differentiated in the mind of the child, 
neither is it easy for an adult observer to dis- 
tinguish them from spontaneous imitation. 
In purely spontaneous imitation the child re- 
produces literally, as well as he can, what he 
has observed; while in dramatic imitation he 
does not. Sometimes he goes beyond the 
make-believe stage and for the time he actu- 
ally changes his personality. He actually 
screams with terror at the attacks of a make- 
believe bear, or weeps over the misfortune of 
a make-believe kitty. 

This dramatic tendency usually appears 
about the age of three and continues through 
life but is at its climax from about four to 
seven. From the standpoint of play, Lee 
calls this the “dramatic age.” “As everybody 

[53] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


knows, the play of small children, say, two 
and one-half years old or thereabout—is 
largely in the form of make-believe. ‘They 
play doll and house and soldier. Sand at their 
touch turns into pies and houses, blocks be- 
come cows and schooners and railroad trains. 
. . . Much of the child’s life at this age con- 
sists in impersonation, directly or through 
playthings to which the various parts are as- 
signed, and there is no understanding him 
without knowing what this sort of drama 


means.”’ 4 


This dramatic impulse is not the 
impulse to show off. ‘That belongs to a later 
and self-conscious period. One of the char- 
acteristic marks of this period, the dramatic 
age, is its lack of self-consciousness. In fact, 
the reason why these first two periods of child- 
hood are so little understood by grown people 
is that they have forgotten their own child- 
hood. The child’s world of make-believe is 
the gist of his whole life. It colors all of his 
4Lee, Play in Education, p. 117. 


[54] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


activities. He must do everything in char- 
acter; and, in all plays which he himself ini- 
tiates, the child does everything in character. 
But this does not prove, as many elders seem 
to think, that the child has a dual nature, one 
adapted to work and the other to play. On 
the contrary this universal tendency on the 
part of children to impersonate shows that the 
tendencies from which play is developed are 
not peculiar to play but these tendencies 
originate serious activities.” A child is seri- 
ous in his play whether he is making mud pies, 
building with his blocks, playing horse or 
steam-engine; he is giving his whole mind to 
the matter in hand and is as much absorbed in 
it as adults become in their most serious pur- 
suits. In fact the play of children is in the 
main not play at all in the sense in which 
grown people use the word. It is play in the 
sense of its being spontaneous, agreeable, and 
undertaken for one’s own pleasure and with- 


5 Heniger, The Kingdom of the Child, p. 8. 


[55] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


out a conscious end in view. But it is not in- 
dulged in for relaxation or diversion nor is it 
of secondary importance.® 

This dramatic .impulse that we see uni- 
versally expressed in children is not dramatic 
in the grown-up sense—a matter of dramatic 
interpretation—representing to other people 
what is passing in the actor’s mind. It is the 
converse of this. It is the method a child 
uses to make clear to himself what he sup- 
poses to be in other people’s minds. It is 
essentially an impulse to understand the world. 
It goes much deeper than mere imitation; it 
is not so much concerned with the act as with 


the “feel.” Not the outer act but the inner —— 


spirit is what the child desires to represent or 
to possess. 'To do this he is not only under 
the necessity of acting out in flesh his intuitions 
of the inner nature of the world, but he must 
give his mental images bodily form before he 
fully possesses them. | Stevenson has aptly 
expressed this thought. “We grown people 


6 Lee, Play in Education, pp. 1ff. 
[56] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


can tell ourselves a story, give and take strokes 
until the bucklers ring, ride far and fast, 
marry, fall and die, all the while sitting quietly 
by the fire or lying prone in bed. This is 
exactly what a child can not do, or does not do, 
at least, when he can find anything else. He 
works all with lay figures and such properties. 
When this story comes to the fighting, he must 
rise, get something by the way of a sword and 
have a set-to with a piece of furniture, until 
he is out of breath. When he comes to ride 
with the king’s pardon, he must bestride a 
chair, which he will so hurry and belabor and 
on which he so furiously demeans himself that 
the messenger will arrive, if not bloody with 
spurring, at least red with haste.” ‘ 

Playful imitation does not seem to convert 
the copy into the original as does dramatic 
imitation. Groos in his discussion of dramatic 
play says: “Imitation is still the foundation 
and also the source of pleasure not only in 
the feelings of emulation, but in putting one’s 


7 Stevenson, Child’s Play (Virginibus Puerisque). 
[57] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


self in the play of imagination and in the en- 
joyment of esthetic effect. There can be no 
doubt that this refinement of the process by 
which the external act of imitation becomes at 
the same time inward sympathy is of great 
importance to human progress.... HKven 
when a child copies for the sake of copying 
he learns an astonishing amount, and acquires 
a host of psychic adaptations. But mental 
elasticity, adaptability, and mobility are first 
acquired when the migratory instincts of the 
soul, so to speak, are awakened, and the child 
enters into the life of his model. Veritable 
participation in the mental states of another 
individual, objective appraisal of what he 
feels and strives for, would scarcely be pos- 
sible without such practice.”’* It cannot be 
denied that imitation has a great influence on 
developing character. “It is not only likely— 
it is inevitable—that he makes up his person- 
ality, under the limitations of heredity by imi- 
tation, out of the ‘copy’ set in the actions, 


8 Groos, The Play of Man, p. 300. 


[58] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


temper, emotions of the people who build 
around him the social enclosure of his child- 
hood. . . . For in Liebnitz’s phrase, the boy 
or girl is a social monad, a little world, which 
reflects the whole system of influences coming 
to stir its sensibilities. And just as far as his 
sensibilities are stirred, he imitates, and forms 
habits of imitation. And habits?—they are 
character.” ° 

Junior Period.—It has already been stated 
that dramatic imitation appears at about the 
age of three and is the dominant urge from 
this age until about seven years of age but 
continues through life. During the periods 
discussed the child has already developed a 
number of types of mental imagery; he has 
developed from a human personality to an 
individual personality; he has amused himself 
with all sorts of make-believe fancies; he has 
developed an imagination which is very vivid 
but not always accurate. As he approaches 
the junior period, he seems no longer content 


9 Baldwin, Mental Development, p. 357. 
[59] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


to dream of a world of fancy; he can no longer 
ride a stick but must have a real horse. He 
longs to become acquainted with a real world. 
Dramatic representation still appeals to him 
but he demands an accurate representation ac- 
cording to truth. 

A dolescence.—In the teen age the imagina- 
tion takes flight in the world of books and 
literature. “Boys and girls between ages of 
fourteen and seventeen, as well as young men 
and women in every college throughout the 
country, are just as interested as are little 
children in the form of play which the little 
ones call ‘making believe’ and which the chil- 
dren of older growth call ‘dramatics.’”*° G. 
Stanley Hall tells us that if we make a study 
of the dramatic instinct as it operates at this 
stage of life we shall see that one of the char- 
acteristic changes of dawning adolescence is 
the awakening interest in adult men and 
women and all their works and ways. It is 
at this stage that the dramatic tendency is of 


10 Heniger, The Kingdom of the Child, p. 89. 


[60] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


paramount importance. A youth at this stage 
of development will read a piece of literature 
and infuse the characters with his own per- 
sonal emotions. He is all aglow to try on a 
new character. ‘The whole world is a stage 
and he is playing the leading role. No situa- 
tion arises but that he immediately places him- 
self in this situation and in his imagination 
reacts to it. His imagination is largely crea- 
tive and is concerned with the formation of 
ideals. He spends much time in day-dreams 
in which he creates a world and his relation- 
ship to it, not as it is but as he hopes it to be. 
He is continually having imaginary experi- 
ences and doing things similar to those in real 
life but infinitely more satisfying and success- 
ful. Even when his every-day life is very 
commonplace, he is living, in his imagination, 
a life that is far from commonplace. He is 
continually seeking a model after which he 
may pattern. 

Through the expression of his dramatic im- 
pulse, the youth finds a solace and distraction 

[61] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


in those moments of first awakening from the 
glamour of his first interpretation of life to 
sterner realities which are thrust upon his con- 
sciousness.‘ The great task is to keep the 
necessary bond between the imaginary ex- 
periences and real achievement so that they 
may direct activity. “The day dreams and 
imaginings, although of less intellectual value 
than the constructive imagination of the pre- 
ceding period, are of far more significance in 
the development of character. Life means a 
thousand pictured possibilities, and usually 
there is more or less of an impulse to realize 
some or all of these possibilities. In nearly 
every case some of the possibilities become 
ideals and help direct conduct during longer 
or shorter periods, and not infrequently 
throughout life.” *” 

A dulthood.—The expression of the drama- 
tic impulse is not limited to childhood and 


11 Addams, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets, Chap. 
IV. 
12 Kirkpatrick, The Individual in the Making, p. 221. 


[62] 


PSYCHOLOGICAL BASIS 


youth. It continues through adult life, giv- 
ing wing to thought, giving abstract themes a 
setting, and thus making them clear. By the 
exercise of it, old age relives the experiences 
of youth and visualizes the world to come. 
Thus it continues through life, utilizes what 
it finds, looks for what it wants, and, when it 
cannot find what it wants, it creates. It seems 
to be a mold through which all the interests of 
life run. The infant smiles when smiled at; 
the young child gets his first thrill of parent- 
hood when playing with dolls; the older child 
finds great delight in accurate dramatic repre- 
sentations; the adolescent sees the whole world 
as a stage; the old man lives over again the 
scenes of his life and pictures the life to come. 
Thus the dramatic urge finds expression in 
and colors all life. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Curtis, Eleanor Whitman, The Dramatic Instinct in 
Education, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. 
[63 ] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Harrison, Elizabeth, A Study of Child Nurture, Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press, 1914. 

Heniger, Alice Herts, The Kingdom of the Child, E. P. 
Dutton Co., 1918. 

Lee, Joseph, Play in»Education, Macmillan Co., 1922. 

MacCunn, John, The Making of Character, Macmillan 
Co., 19138. 


[64] 


CHAPTER IV 


THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE 
DRAMATIC METHOD 


THe ULTIMATE AIM OF EDUCATION 


The Development of Personality—Before 
one can intelligently discuss educational values 
he must know the aim of education and have 
some knowledge of the means of its attain- 
ment. Weare told that the ultimate standard 
of value among human beings is personality; 
hence its development is of supreme impor- 
tance. Not only should this personality be 
self-directing, but organized and unified into 
a consistent whole, or be progressing toward 
such organization and unity. Welton defines 
personality as “the whole man in all his ac- 
tivity, in all his relations, in all his aspira- 


2907 


tions. Personality, then, is a matter of 


1 Welton, What Do We Mean by Education? p. 89. 
[65] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


growth which is brought about by the gradual 
organization of life according to the values of 
the various elements constituting it. Starting 
with the innate tendencies, through experience 
in certain surroundings and under certain in- 
fluences, dynamic forces gather strength in 
life. These innate tendencies and forces need 
to be harmonized, but none absolutely negated. 
The task of education is, then, one of directing, 
coordinating, and harmonizing, thus bringing 
about a perfect organization of life under one 
great purpose which finds its meaning in one 
great ideal.” The ultimate aim of education 
is the whole and complete life. ‘This is a quite 
different concept of education than that some- 
times held; namely, that education is simply a 
matter of giving information. The educator 
must remember he is not dealing with abstract 
forces but with active, pulsing, concrete hu- 
man life. A rigid insistence on the learning 
of set facts has ever failed to inspire in most 


pupils a desire to know them. But if these 


2 Thorndike, Hducational Psychology (briefer edition), pp. 
44-46; 163. 
[66] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


facts can be applied to his experience, they 
take on new life and meaning and are useful 
in so far as they evoke desire and effort. They 
are justified in so far as they direct that desire 
and effort toward an approved end.’ 

As has been said, in the unifying of person- 
ality there is needed, as a dominant center, a 
great ideal. The question then arises: what 
is to be that great ideal? Welton, in discuss- 
ing this ideal, says, “such a dominating ideal 
would, therefore, be a true and complete pic- 
ture of the highest good possible to man and 
that . . . is found only in a relation to that 
highest good and true personality which we 
call God. That is the ideal toward which a 
perfect education would strive; and educa- 
tional progress can consist only in drawing 


4 It would seem 


continually nearer to it. 
then that the differentiation between secular 
and religious education is unwarranted. 'The 
child is a unit. He has one set of tendencies. 


8 Shaver, The Project Principle in Religious Education, pp. 
132ff. 
4 Welton, What Do We Mean by Education? p. 91. 


[67] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


A unified life is the end of the educational 
process. ‘The division of the educational task 
is necessitated by our political organization; 
but the process of education is one. 


THe Dramatic TENDENCY AS A TOOL OF 
LEARNING 


The question then in our discussion is: can 
the dramatic method be used advantageously, 
purposefully, meaningfully as a means of at- 
taining the aim of education; namely, the de- 
velopment of a unified, harmonious person- 
ality having as a dominating center the more 
ample personality, God, and possessing the 
ability to function properly in society ? 

It has already been stated that the task of 
the educator is to direct the tendencies of the 
individual toward life processes. ‘To be sure, 
native ability is supplemented with acquired 
ability ; but, in beginning the training of a child, 
we start with his native equipment, his innate 
tendencies. They are his only tools for learn- 

[68] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


ing. Any educational system, to be effective, 
must recognize the predominating drives in dif- 
ferent stages of development and utilize them 
to the fullest possible extent. The instinctive 
spontaneity and liveliness of the child should 
be used as an aid in learning. 


EDUCATIONAL VALUES 


Complete Enlistment of All the Faculties.— 
In the earlier discussion we have attempted to 
show that the urge for dramatic expression 1s 
a part of native equipment. The fact that it 
appears so early in the human race, as well as 
in the life of the individual, would appear to 
substantiate that position. Part of the task 
of the educator then is to discover and analyze 
the educational values of the dramatic method 
of teaching. Every true teacher is in search of 
that method which will secure an all-absorbing 
interest on the part of the child, a unified ef- 
fort and attention.” The dramatic method 


5 Woodworth, Dynamic Psychology, pp. 69ff. 
[69 | 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


is of educational value because it enlists so 
completely all the faculties. This is evidenced 
by the extreme seriousness with which children 
enter into it. Lee tells us that “the test of 
true educational experience is that it leaves a 
larger personality behind. ... An exercise 
to have this educational effect must possess 
the quality of complete enlistment. It is with 
the core of being, the central and pervading 
essence as with the subordinate faculties; the 
soul, like the muscles, grows by action; it cre- 
ates itself by self-assertion, by pulling itself 
forth in overt deeds into concrete form. It is 
only what you put the whole of yourself in 
that will give you a greater self in return.” ° 

Natural Response —Dramatic presentation 
secures a natural response. By natural re- 
sponse is meant the interest that is secured be- 
cause it arises within consciousness as it reacts 
to its environment instead of being arbitrarily 
imposed by some other consciousness. Arti- 
ficial interest, on the other hand, comes into 


6 Lee, Play in Education, p. 1. 
[70] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


existence by some special act of another person 
rather than by the natural course of events. 
Artificial interest lacks essential permanence, 
while interest aroused through the ordinary as- 
sociation with things and people is ordinarily 
self-perpetuating and may be regarded as 
genuine natural interest.‘ 

It has been held by many educators that in- 
terests employed in educating a child must 
be largely artificial. They held that the child 
is preparing for adult life, and since he is not 
surrounded by experiences of adult life, ar- 
tificia]l interests in adult life must be stimulated. 
Much of our teaching of religion and morals 
has been based upon this theory. An increas- 
ing number, however, now hold that a child 
can be much better prepared to meet adult life 
by living most completely the life of a child 
and developing in a natural way the natural 
interests of childhood and later those of youth 
and adulthood as the conditions of life and the 
manifestations of imborn tendencies vary. 


7 Kirkpatrick, The Individual in the Making, Chap. II. 


[v1] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Probably the highly skilled teacher may secure 
better results in a shorter time by depending 
almost entirely upon genuine interests nat- 
urally aroused. 'To be sure, she must be alert 
and able to discern the impulse prominent in 
the pupil at the time and adapt the work to his 
impulses instead of requiring him to adapt 
himself to her schedule. ‘In so far as the pur- 
pose of education is to develop personality of 
the individual, artificial interests are far less 
effective than the normal, natural and genuine 
ones. . . . The most effectual development of 
individuality is possible only when it takes un- 
der the influence of interests arising from one’s 
own natural impulses and in accordance with 
interests and ideals which he has adopted as his 
own.” ® 

If this be true, the task of the educator is 
to seek to utilize the currents of a child’s own 
nature. Instead of selecting that which he 
feels will be most valuable to the child on 
reaching adulthood and trying to “childrenize’’ 


8 Kirkpatrick, The Individual in the Making, p. 35. 
[72] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


it in order to appeal to an artificial interest, he 
will select those materials and employ that 
method of presentation which will interest the 
child in his present stage of development and 
will cause him to control his conduct in ways 
that will promote complete and well rounded 
development, and secure for him success in 
adult activities. The problem is not so much 
one of arranging facts and truths to be learned 
as one of finding means of correlating various 
interests and activities in such a manner that 
more and broader interests shall be aroused so 
that the child will eventually feel that what he 
is doing now is a means to doing something else 
and so on until his highest ambitions are 
realized. Such a method will bring about a 
genuine correlation within the consciousness of 
the individual and will tend to bring about a 
complete unification of personality. 

We are what our natures allow us to be. A 
teacher, to be effective, must consider the in- 
nate desires and impulses and regulate his 
method thereby, otherwise he will secure only a 

[73] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


forced response which brings no pleasurable 
reaction and which makes drudgery out of 
what should have been a pleasurable expe- 
rience.*° If the teacher takes into consider- 
ation the spontaneous interests of different 
stages of development and exposes these inter- 
ests or tendencies to the right kind of stimuli, 
they will secure such a natural response as will 
make the process of learning an easy and nat- 
ural one. “He that has found a way to keep 
a child’s spirits, easy, active, and free; and yet, 
at the same time, to restrain him from many 
things he has a mind to, and to draw him to 
things that are uneasy to him; he, I say, that 
knows how to reconcile these seeming contra- 
dictions, has in my opinion, got the true secret 
of education.” *° ‘The individual responds to 
dramatic presentation because his interest 
grows out of certain fundamental urges of self- 
expression. ‘l'o speak of this method as dra- 
matic play is perhaps misleading; one might 


9 Thorndike, Educational Psychology, Vol. 1, “The Original 
Nature of Man,” pp. 289-293. 
10 Locke, Thoughts Concerning Education, p. 46. 


[74] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


better say dramatic expression, which is a more 
inclusive term and has to do with the means, 
not the end. Such expression may be de- 
scribed as a vital spark of life dropped down 
into a program of normalism and routine. It 
may include all methods that are so imagina- 
tive, constructive, and vivid as to infuse an 
emotional equality into the facts and ideas pre- 
sented, thus connecting them with life. Such 
presentation of facts in relation to life expe- 
riences stimulates interest and secures an ac- 
tive and natural response. 

Release from Fact Environment and Fact 
Personality.— The relationship between the in- 
dividual and his environment is an insepa- 
rable one. In that environment he finds his 
aims and seeks guidance toward their ac- 
complishment. By the use of dramatic ex- 
pression the educator is able not only to reg- 
ulate environment but to create environment. 
Tor a dramatic imagination not only supplies a 
personality but a personality especially calcu- 
lated to deal with a dramatic environment. 


[75] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Such a dramatic environment and personality 
meet a demand for fuller activity than may be 
enjoyed by the fact environment and the per- 
manent personality. Through dramatic rep- 
resentation, the individual touches heights and 
depths which otherwise might never come into 
his experience. Life becomes larger and his 
contacts more numerous as he lays off his own 
limitations and puts himself in another’s place. 
A little girl need not wait until she is grown to 
get the first thrill of motherhood. A boy need 
not wait to enlist in the army to become a sol- 
dier, nor carry a real gun to acquire the martial 
step, but these emotions may be developed 
through dramatic expression. In each child 
slumbers not only all the experience but all 
the imaginative power of the human race; na- 
ture has equipped him with capacity in the ex- 
ercise of which he may acquire all this ex- 
perience.'* 

Development of Imagination—We must 
feed and develop imagination and allow it 


11 Welton, What Do We Mean by Education? p. 126. 
[76] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


scope if we would have the child grow up. 
Such development is the first step in the larger 
life process of the individual. It is the imag- 
inative material out of which all achievement 
is condensed. The need of imagining is the 
need of building castles in the air before trying 
out architectural conceptions upon the tougher 
susceptibilities of brick and mortar. Only by 
proper functioning of this power of imagina- 
tion may one pass by way of achievement to 
real growth. ‘The degree of success depends 
upon the fullness of the vision. The more con- 
crete the ideal, the more concretely it acts and 
lives in the individual. In dramatic expres- 
sion the child tries on a new character. He is 
transplanted in new environment. He gains 
experience. He acquires many of the neces- 
sary qualities and rehearses many of the ac- 
tivities by which he is to make and hold a place 
in the world’s complications. These impulses 
which urge him are but the interests of adult 
life. He makes social adaptations to new and 


created environment. ‘Thus is developed a 
[77] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


sympathetic understanding. He is placed in 
another’s place. He gets experience by proxy, 
so to speak, 

Aims beyond Present Attainment.—“If 
education does not point ahead, it must tend to 
retard the advance of the developing spiritual 
life. When it is spoken of as formative, the 
essential meaning is that it helps to determine 
life by offering ideals and inspiring desires 
which lead to effort of a certain kind and direct 
toward a certain end.” *” In all stages of ex- 
pression we find the individual exploring new 
territory, seeking new experiences, establish- 
ing new contacts, making adaptations to new 
situations. ‘Thus the dramatic impulse aims 
beyond present attainments. It points in the 
direction of needed development and aims be- 
yond existing powers. It is always seeking an 
end and is in itself an achievement. One does 
not give expression to this impulse so much be- 
cause he chooses to as because the prescribed 
end chooses him. It is only when we recog- 


12 Welton, What Do We Mean by Education? p. 126. 
[78] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


nize the purposeful character of dramatic ex- 
pression that we appreciate its vital function in 
the development of the individual.** 

At the heart of purposeful dramatic expres- 
sion is anideal. We find in observing children 
in their play activities that they are never quite 
satisfied with their achievement. If a child 
builds a house of blocks he never sits long view- 
ing his achievement but tears it down that he 
may build a better one or construct something 
entirely different. The same is true of other 
activities in which the imagination and dra- 
matic expression are employed. “Build thee 
more stately mansions, O my soul!” seems to 
be a dominant impulse in individual as well 
as in racial development. ‘There seems to be 
something in the individual driving him on to 
greater achievement and further conquest. 

Gets Teaching into Action; Achieves Per- 
sonal Valwes——It would seem then that the 
dramatic impulse may serve mental, moral, and 
religious purposes. What the individual really 


13 Lee, Play in Education, Chap. II. 
[79] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


does in dramatic expression is to carry facts 
into values, and that is a far longer stride than 
to merely carry facts into acts. It is more 
than a quality of mid. It is a quality of the 
soul and as such needs far more careful, wiser, 
more individual training than any purely men- 
tal quality. Morality has its birth and its 
being in fundamental emotional attitudes.“ 
The psychology of emotions and the training 
of the same is receiving much attention to- 
day. Earhart in discussing the importance of 
training the emotions says, “The main thing is 
to turn fine sentiment into fine action and not 
let it go to waste.” *® The dramatic method 
provides means of getting teaching into action, 
and for the purpose of the educator nothing is 
more important. “Learning may remain de- 
tached, as a garment, unidentified with self. 
The final appreciation in life and in study is 
to put one’s self in the thing studied and to 
live there actively. Thus the source of all art 


is imitation in the fullest sense, not copy, 


14 Heniger, The Kingdom of the Child, Chap. III. 
15 Karhart, Types of Teaching, p. 127. 


[80] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


but identification.” 1° 


Morality is skill in con- 
duct, and can no more be acquired without con- 
stant practice than can skill in any form of 
activity. “Virtue is seen only in action and, 


therefore, can be learned only by action.” *’ 


“The moral sense grows but by exercise.” ** 
To quote further from Welton, “Conceptions 
of virtues, and rules of duty to God and man, 
may be expounded without the slightest effect 
on action. Only when they can be appealed to 
in order to solve a real moral problem are they 
effective in determining conduct.” '® Intellec- 
tual comprehensions of doctrines of morality 
and religion are, then, operative educationally 
only when these are taken up into the spir- 
itual life as guiding principles and become 
identified with personal experiences and pur- 
poses. Power to talk ideas does not give 
power to act them. Power to act,—that is, 
skill—comes only through practice. Or, as 

16 Cook, The Play Way, p. 16. 

17 Welton, What Do We Mean by Education? p. 138. 


18 Browning, The Ring and the Book. 
19 Welton, What Do We Mean by Education? p. 138. 


[81] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Newman puts it, “Something more than 
merely admitting of truth into the mind is 
necessary if it is to remain. It must not be 
passively received, but actually and actively 
entered into, embraced, mastered.” 7° In the 
training of children we must remember they 
have immature minds and small experience. 
They need the help of suggestion and the stim- 
ulus of definitely raised problems, to be sure 
that they take up into the living streams of 
their lives the ideas which they find in their 
teaching and in books. ‘The dramatic method 
of teaching provides means for doing this 
very thing. “Drama deals with men in 
groups, and men in action. It shows action 
rather than talks about it. It does not paint 
life but sets it before us. ... It shows us 
man’s interior nature working itself out as an 
objective fact.” ** 

Bagley in his discussion of ideals and their 
control of conduct tells us that ideals are crys- 


20 Newman, Idea of a University, p. 489. 
21 Dewey, Psychology, p. 321. 


[82] 


EDUCATIONAL VALUE 


tallized in dramatic expression. “Situations 
that are vividly imagined become in effect real 
situations. Actual adjustment to them is of- 
ten initiated. . . . Ideas that are absorbed at 
this time will tend to become emotionalized, 
—to become ideals. Courage, perseverance, 
magnanimity, courtesy, charity and a host of 
other virtues may, in this way, be endowed with 
sufficient emotional force to carry them 
through life as effective controls of conduct.” ” 

Dramatic work, then, employs the whole 
of a child’s power. It chases out self- 
consciousness and relieves formality by secur- 
ing a natural response. It enriches experience 
by offering release from fact environment and 
permanent personality. It aids in character 
development by aiming beyond existing 
achievements. It organizes imagination and 
seizes upon essentials by breaking through the 
usually enforced limitations of time and space. 
It sets free a sense of humor out of which will 


22 Bagley, Educational Values, p. 170. 


[83] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


grow a sympathetic philosophy of life. It 
points the way to achievement of highest per- 
sonal values. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Earhart, Lida B., Types of Teaching, Houghton Mifflin 
Conslols: 

Finlay-Johnson, Harriet, The Dramatic Method of 
Teaching, Ginn & Co. 

Fry, Emma Sheridan, Educational Dramatics, Moffatt, 
Yard & Co., 1913. 

Hilliard, Evelyne, Amateur and Educational Dramatics. 


[84] 


CHAPTER V 


THE PLACE OF DRAMATIC ACTIVITIES IN 
THE PROGRAM OF RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


Wuat Makes Epucation RE.IGIous? 


In this discussion education has already been 
defined and its aim stated. It has also been 
pointed out that the educational process is one 
because the child is a unit of capacities and 
experiences. It has been shown that the 
dramatic method has value in general educa- 
tion. Its value in religious education now re- 
mains to be shown. ‘The question then arises: 
What is religious education and in what re- 
spect does it differ from general education? 
If the results of the previous discussion be 
valid, religious education is but a phase of 
education, but one aspect of the total experi- 
ence in the continuous development of the in- 
dividual. Betts tells us that “in order to be 

[85] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


religious, education must be more than moral 
education, more than civic education, more 
than esthetic education. It may include all of 
these, but it must go deeper, and it must in- 
volve a new element; an element which is at 
root the determining factor in deciding 
whether the education being given is religious. 
This element is the concept of and belief in 
God and (for the Christian religion) Jesus 
Christ. . . . In short, just as the function of 
education is to fit the individual into a present 
social process as a helpful participant, so it is 
the function of religious education to fit the in- 
dividual as a constructive, upbuilding force in 
a present day religio-social process which that 
education will help to define.’* Another 
authority in the field, Bennett, says: “Re- 
ligion relates life to God. Hence, education 
is religious when its conceptions, aims, and 
methods are conceived, motivated, and directed 
in terms of religious idealism. . . . Chris- 
tianity holds that it is the development of 


1G. H. Betts, Religious Education, Vol. XVIII, No. 2, 
April 1921, pp. 86f. 
[86] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


personality after its teacher, that God may be 
glorified in the extension of his spiritual king- 
dom. ‘This makes religion the basis of mor- 
ality and motivates conduct in terms of re- 
sponsibility to creator and creatures. Edu- 
cation to be Christian interprets the aims in 
life in terms of Christian idealism, breathing 
through it all the meanings, attitudes, and the 
principles of its Exemplar.” * It would seem 
then that the aim of religious education is 
much like the aim of general education; 
namely, the development of a unified, harmo- 
nious personality, having as a dominant center 
God, and, for Christian education, possessing 
the ability to function in society according to 
the teachings of Jesus Christ. 


Dors RELIGIOUS EDUCATION REQUIRE 
SPECIAL MeEtrHops? 


Another question to be raised is: Does re- 
ligious education require special methods? 


2 Arthur E. Bennett, Jbid., pp. 88-89. 
[87] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Will the methods that are successful in general 
education be fruitful in religious education? 
The child is a unit. He brings to the class for 
religious instruction the same capacities, the 
same set of experiences, and is prepared to 
give the same characteristic reactions as to any 
other instruction. Because of these facts, the 
assumption is made that methods found of 
value in general education may be used with 
profit in religious education. It must be 
granted that in actual practice religious educa- 
tion has a special aim; namely, the develop- 
ment of the moral and religious character of 
the individual. Such development cannot be 
secured by merely informing the understand- 
ing. The religious educator has a right to 
demand the acquisition of certain facts 
concerning religion. But besides knowledge 
about religion there must be appreciation, per- 
sonal ideals, and efficiency in Christian living. 
Accordingly, the main problem of method is 
that of guidance in matters of sentiment and 
motive. ‘There is a growing realization that 
[88 ] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


this cannot be done by teaching the contents of 
dogma. Methods of religious instruction, 
therefore, are being brought into close rela- 
tion to the individual’s present religious needs. 


THE EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF THE DRAMATIC 
METHOD IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


The value of the dramatic method of teach- 
ing in general education has already been 
discussed. All that has been said of the educa- 
tive value of the method in general education 
applies in religious education. Provision for 
such expression is making its way into the pro- 
gram of religious education, not only on the 
grounds of its general educative value but also 
because of conclusions drawn from the nature 
of religion and from observation of the reli- 
gious reactions of children and youth. Be- 
cause of the tendency to regard religious 
experience as something apart from all other 
experience, and because of the importance of 
religion in the life of the individual, it is ex- 


[89] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


tremely important to enlist all the faculties of 
the individual on its behalf. As has already 
been stated, the dramatic method has edu- 
cational value because it secures a normal 
response. It is highly important that the re- 
sponse to religious training be a perfectly nor- 
mal and natural one, inasmuch as there is a 
tendency to regard religious experience as ab- 
normal and quite out of the class of normal ex- 
perience. By the use of the dramatic method 
definitely raised problems may be presented in 
which principles governing right conduct may 
be actually employed. Thus the child gains 
experience in developing skills of living. ‘The 
dramatic method provides means for getting 
religious teaching into action. It develops 
imagination, and the development of imagina- 
tion makes for a sympathetic understanding 
of others. One’s own affairs tend to sink into 
their true relationship to others’ rights and a 
normal balance between the individual and 
society to result. Imagination is the basis for 
altruism. One’s failure to follow the Golden 
[90] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


Rule may come less from the lack of good in- 
tention than from the inability to put oneself 
m another’s place and appreciate how he would 
feel under given circumstances. Imagination 
helps to distinguish the morally congruous and 
incongruous. Our religious fanatics cannot 
see things in relation but are dominated by a 
single idea. ‘They cannot laugh at themselves, 
but take their whims for their conscience. 
These are examples of the absence of the cul- 
tivation of imagination. Personal apprecia- 
tion, the power to enter into the lives of others 
and to realize how they feel and react to situa- 
tions, is an element of great importance in the 
kind of character that religious education 
should seek to foster. 

The aim of the dramatic method in religious 
education is not to make actors but to develop 
imaginative creatures; to make them into ap- 
preciative citizens; to widen their horizon, men- 
tally, ethically, and spiritually; to give full, 
free expression, in order that they may de- 
velop in beauty, health, and grace, that they 

[91] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


may approach life with eagerness and vigor; 
and to stimulate their creative gift for strong 
individual expression so that, when they have 
found and recognized their special, individual 
work, they may be able to focus their powers 
upon it with strong initiative and joyous in- 
dividuality. 


GUIDING PRINCIPLES 


The place of dramatic activities in the pro- 
gram of religious education may be defined by 
discussion of principles which should govern 
their use. 

Dramatic Activities an Integral Part of the 
Program.—Dramatic activities should be an 
integral part of the program and not an ex- 
traneous matter added to an already overbur- 
dened curriculum. Much energy and money 
have been wasted in the program of religious 
education by following fads, by attempting 
methods that have been found unsuccessful in 
general education. The principle that con- 

[92] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


tinuous experience gets into structure holds as 
truly in religious experience as in other ex- 
perience. The fact is that many of our best 
leaders in religious education have not been en- 
thusiastic about (some have even been inimical 
to) the use of the dramatic method because it 
has sometimes been used unwisely and has not 
been built into the church program. ‘Too 
many times dramatic activities have been in the 
nature of a demonstration quite independent of 
the other features of the program. Much has 
been said about correlation of the activities of 
the church school; but many of the leaders of 
the various activities still seem to be working 
on the assumption that, if each project is done 
well, the outcome will be satisfactory. They 
do not stop to inquire if these fragments will 
make a whole. Educational responsibility 
cannot be met by launching new agencies and 
adopting new methods. There is need for the 
preparation of a program from the standpoint 
of meeting the full needs of the individual who 
is to be taught. The task is to formulate out 
[93] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


of the wealth of materials and of methods of 
presentation a single rounded and complete 
program. ‘Too often the use of dramatic ac- 
tivities has not been brought into clearly de- 
fined relationship with the other parts of the 
curriculum. ‘There must at least be an attempt 
to secure correlation between the instruction 
and the expression. ‘The teaching may be ex- 
cellent but so unrelated to the expression that 
it cannot be assimilated. For example, a mis- 
sionary drama, if given to crystallize a certain 
message evolved from a study of a missionary 
topic, would be much more fruitful than a mis- 
sionary play or pageant presented without re- 
lation to any other activity of the church pro- 
gram. 

Purposefulness.—The use of dramatic activ- 
ities should be purposeful. Feverish activity 
marks much of the use of drama in relig- 
ious education. Dramatic activities are fre- 
quently devised without consideration of their 
aims. ‘Tio many people, the use of drama in 
religious education means the production of an 

[94] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


elaborate pageant or drama. Some have been 
satisfied with elaborating processes without in- 
quiring into their products. The task of de- 
veloping religiously minded individuals is far 
too serious and important to permit the use of 
methods without scientific examination and 
testing. There is a need of mingling knowl- 
edge with zeal to definitely discover the values 
and efficiency of methods which we now blindly 
follow. 

Dramatization as mere dramatization should 
occupy a very small place in the program of re- 
ligious education, or in any other educational 
program for that matter. It is only as the use 
of dramatization can be defended in terms of 
ends that this method may be held valid. One 
must know the desired goal in order to make 
purposeful use of any method. While an aim 
without a method of attainment is useless, on 
the other hand, a method without an aim is 
blind. If one is using the dramatic method for 
class-room instruction there are three ques- 
tions to be asked. First, can it be brought into 


[95 ] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


line with the problem of the lesson? Second, 
will it aid in making the situation real? We 
have stated as one of the educational values of 
the dramatic methed, that it gets the child into 
the habit of seeing things vividly, so that the 
imagination has through it set a high standard 
which it will, in the absence of dramatization, 
seek to reach. The imagination will have 
formed the habit of not resting content until 
the situation has been brought up to the high 
standard of reality to which it has become ac- 
customed. The third question is: Will it aid 
in giving the mind clearer percepts? Here is 
found one of the most important justifications 
of classroom dramatization. When a clearer, 
more accurate and lasting perception is the de- 
sired end, then the child should be allowed to 
learn through creation. To act the process that 
is being explained guarantees comprehension 
that cannot be secured by the mere giving of 
information. Dramatization may also be used 
when appreciation is the desired aim. It is a 
common experience that one cannot appreciate 
[96] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


the characters he meets in history, fiction— 
their hates, their loves, their longings, hopes, 
and ambitions—unless he takes a subjective 
rather than an objective attitude toward them. 
To relive their lives he must not only assume 
their mental attitude but also their physical 
posture. The characters of the Bible may be 
made to become living actualities by allowing 
the child to relive, in the brief tabloid of the 
drama, the characters of biblical literature. 
By this method biblical appreciation may be 
taught rather than caught. 

To make the Bible morally and religiously 
educative, it is essential that the student should 
come to have a realizing sense of the past. 
Often the great characters of the Bible are to 
the student merely dim phantoms moving 
across a white mist, and their great deeds are 
no more real and human than the characters 
of our half-forgotten dreams. If these great 
characters are to lift, to inspire, and to instruct 
our youth they must appreciate the biblical 
times as alive, realizing that every recorded 

[97] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


deed sprang from human beings like these we 
know to-day, moved by the same hopes, aspira- 
tions, and fears, handicapped by the same 
weaknesses and failures. To put these scenes 
in dramatic form transfigures the past and 
gives these dim phantoms life. 


The statue shrined and still 
In that grey minster front we call the Past, 
Feels in its frozen veins our pulses thrill 
Breathes living air and mocks at Death’s deceit. 
It warms, it stirs, comes down to us at last, 
Its features human with a familiar light, 
A man beyond the historian’s art to kill 
Or sculptor’s to efface with patient chisel-blight.* 


Our Bible has sometimes been made a “fe- 
tish.”” It needs to be resolved into elements of 
which the unit is the individual. It is when its 
chapters are read in terms of the individuals 
who make them up that its teaching is brought 
home. When it is interpreted in this larger 
and more human way it has a place in the 
curriculum from the kindergarten to the end. 
Only as we interpret it so can it be fully 


3 Lowell, Under the Old Elm, Canto II, Stanza 2. 
[98] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


utilized not only for ethical and moral instruc- 
tion but also for that moral and religious awak- 
ening which comes from vital contact with 
noble men and heroic deeds. Other great 
literature might well find a place in our cur- 
riculum, the same principles being applied and 
the same methods being employed. 
Stimulation of Moral and Religious Im- 
pulses.—The use of dramatic activities should 
arouse and deepen the moral and religious 
values. In dramatic activity we see the moral 
law in action. Moral teaching is brought 
home in the most effective way. Manhood, 
self-control, heroism, fidelity, have made for 
life; and every element of brutish selfishness, 
capricious sensuality, cowardly expediency, 
have made for death. In dramatic presenta- 
tion principles of noble living may be seen in 
concrete form. Not only do these teach in a 
concrete way; they present examples for imita- 
tion and inspire the learner to follow. Ideals 
are formed. Great personalities, presented 
for imitation, serve as a type of moral ideal, 
[99] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


thus giving concrete form to the concept of 
noble living. We must remember, too, it is 
not only good men and women who instruct 
us. It is here a question arises: Can we teach 
only by good examples? A little child should 
never be permitted to take the part of a mean 
character. If the type of action is better than 
his own it tends to raise his ideals; if it is lower 
than his own it tends to debase his ideals. 
It is only when he is sufficiently developed to 
understand his necessary relationship to the 
artistic value of the whole plot that it is safe 
for him to take the part of the villain. When 
he has arrived at such age that it is possible for 
him to understand the principles of moral con- 
duct, those principles will at once explain good 
and bad conduct for him. Correct and false 
conduct will be defined, if not in terms of each 
other, at least in relation to each other. ‘The 
tree of knowledge is one of good and evil. An 
intellectual conception of either will involve a 
conception of the other. When evil is por- 
trayed in its native ugliness and hideous con- 
[100] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


sequences, it is instructive to the intellect 
without being attractive to the sensibility. It 
is only when evil is dressed out in an adventi- 
tious garb of false beauty that it becomes 
seductive, because misleading to the emotions. 
It is safe to consider the evil deeds and char- 
acters of the past if one considers them only in 
the proportion they sustain to the good, only 
as they are seen in their true relation to the 
whole of life. When their place is exag- 
gerated or the perception of that relation is 
lost, they will become dangerous. “Show the 
bad to children plainly, but not as an object 
of desire, and they will recognize it as bad. 
Interrupt a narrative with moral precepts, and 
they will find you a wearisome narrator. Re- 
late only what is good and they will feel it 
monotonous and the mere charm of variety will 


make the bad welcome.” * 


Returning to this 
thought later in the same treatise, Herbart 
says: “However extreme the necessity may 
be that a youth should never become familiar 


4 Herbart, Science of Education, translation by Felkin, p. 838. 
[101] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


with the bad, protection of moral feeling need 
not be carried so far (at least not continued so 
long) as to make youths amazed at men as they 
are. Bad company is certainly infectious, 
and almost as much so is a pleasing lingering 
of the imagination on attractive representa- 
tion of the bad. But to have known men in 
early life, in all their many varieties, insures an 
early exercise of moral judgment, as well as a 
valuable security against dangerous surprises. 
And vivid representations of those that were 
give doubtless the readiest preparations of 
those that are, only the part must be sufficiently 
illuminated, so that its men may appear like 
ourselves, and not beings of another species.” ° 

A bad man may conceal his real nature and 
dress his vices in an attractive garb, at least 
for a time; art unmasks tts villain, and when it 
deals with evil makes it as ugly in form as it is 
revolting in spirit. No one who has read 
Othello is led to imitate Iago, and in King 


5 Herbart, Science of Education, translation by Felkin, 
p. 227. 
[102] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


Lear the examples of Goneril and Regan never 
tempted a child to ingratitude. No student 
of Joseph was ever tempted to sell his brother. 
A real test of true art in literature is the way 
it mates the body to the soul. When vice is 
made attractive and arouses a sentimental in- 
terest in it, it is not true art but a low pander- 
ing to decadent sensibility. The principles 
of noble living should be presented in concrete 
form. This will not only teach the children 
the meaning of virtue in the most impressive 
way but also present example for imitation. 
Among historic individuals are many who serve 
in a greater or less degree as types of a moral 
ideal, thus giving concrete form to notable 
ideals of living and inspiring imitation. If the 
student is to receive its real educational value 
he must not stop with the artistic symbol, but 
must turn from it to what it symbolizes. 

There is real danger of dissipation of the 
emotions in dramatic production. “A life 
whose ideal value has been perfectly estab- 

[103] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


lished in experience never aims to serve as a 
model in its form, but only in its essence, in its 
spirit. It is the greatest mistake to suppose 
that spiritual human perfection can serve as a 
model in its form. This accounts for the com- 
mon experience that the taking of such exter- 
nal manifestations of perfection as examples, 
instead of elevating mankind, checks, nay, re- 
presses its development.” © Great care should 
be taken to relate the feeling to the action, so 
that the stirring of the imagination and emo- 
tions to an appreciation of the characters rep- 
resented may be the means of developing a 
more sensitive response of the human being to 
the real world. The value of this culture for 
moral living can hardly be exaggerated, since 
only as one possesses the power to enter appre- 
ciatively into another’s spirit can he act justly 
and be able to help him. 

Proper Gradation to Meet Individual Needs 
and Capacities.—Dramatic activities should be 
graded to meet individual needs and capacities. 


6 Froebel, The Education of Man, translated by Hailmann, 
p.) 12, 


[104] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


There is a certain amount of precious time for 
each stage of development; and we should not 
allow the time for the more fitting—for that 
which gives most joy, and therefore most cul- 
ture—to be usurped by the less fitting or that 
which belongs later and which will later assert 
its claims. It is not difficult to see why this 
applies to dramatic work, even if it be more 
difficult in this field than in others to select 
materials and methods for work with reference 
to the psychological needs of the child. 

The educator must begin with the child and 
work outward with him to the larger world. 
Herein lies one difference between the older 
and more modern use of drama with children. 
Now the benefit to be derived by the child is 
considered of paramount importance. In the 
- past, the child was not supposed to under- 
stand what it was all about. He simply 
helped to make the picture or was exploited 
for the amusement of the audience. It is ex- 
tremely important that a child’s dramatic ex- 
pression be within the realm of his understand- 

[105] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


ing. In order for this to be true, it is neces- 
sary, first, that he be able to identify or relate 
to his own experience the elements in the pres- 
entation and then, in turn, he will be able to 
bring these familiar incidents into new rela- 
tionships. If a child does not have this inti- 
mate understanding of the character or deed 
he is representing, he is likely to feel that he is 
the center of attraction and develop a self- 
consciousness that is very detrimental to his 
development. Second, it must be borne in 
mind that the concrete precedes the abstract. 
A young child will not see beyond the sym- 
bol to the thing or act symbolized. He could 
not appreciate the spirit of kindness but he 
must see the kind deed performed by some un- 
derstandable person. ‘Third, the imagination 
and emotions can be appealed to earlier than 
the reflective reasoning; and synthetic appre- 
ciation can be awakened before intellectual 
analysis should be stimulated. 

These principles will influence the type of 
dramatization as well as selection of material. 

[106] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


As to type, there should be a gradual grada- 
tion from the picture posing, pantomime, and 
portrayal of moods, to dialogues, story play- 
ing, and easy dramatic plot, and, finally, to 
more elaborate and intricate dramatic plot. 
As to material, at first, simple actions and 
concrete lives, as near as possible to the child 
world, may be chosen (from life) without ref- 
erence to historical setting. Gradually these 
characters and deeds may be identified with 
certain movements of humanity which they 
interpret. Later, a specific phase of biblical 
literature, history, or moral living may be used 
with attention as to historic setting, manners, 
customs, and the laws underlying and control- 
ling men and events. 

In the discussion of the psychological basis 
of dramatic work, it was stated that the dra- 
matic impulse runs through life. Hence dra- 
matic activities have a place in all departments, 
stimulating and directing this tendency to- 
ward life processes—not that it should be the 
exclusive method, but because it is a valuable 

[107] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


method. Craig, an expert in this field, says, 
“Of all the arts, those coming nearest to the 
child’s first instincts for temperamental, or let 
us say, more simple expression, in play, are:— 
dramatic art,—the lyric arts,—those that re- 
quire personal action, vocal expression to carry 
them out.” 

Infancy is the period of reflex and spontane- 
ous imitation. The home is the first respon- 
sible agent for its direction. The child at this 
stage of development is unmoral and unrelig- 
ious, being inducted into the mysteries of the 
world. It is from the home and from those 
who have relationship with the home that 
he finds his models for imitation. He is 
thus molded through the forces of imitation. 
Mother-plays at this age are simple and 
should repeat themselves over and over again 
until the child has complete control over them.® 
Later he imitates spontaneously the occupa- 
tions of the household .such as sweeping, dust- 


7 Craig, The Dramatic Festival, p. 13. 
8 Betts, The Mother Teacher of Religion; Munkres, Mother, 
the Playfellow. 


[108] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


ing, setting the table, ete., but always unrelated 
to any other experience.? The Church is 
responsible for children of this age in so far as 
it is responsible for the home. 

The earlier grades deal with the child of the 
age when dramatic imitation makes its ap- 
pearance and is almost the exclusive method of 
acquiring experience. He now lives in a land 
of make-believe. He learns by actually seeing 
and doing things. This must be a guiding 
principle of all successful primary teachers. 
If they seek to give formal instruction during 
these years they violate nature’s plan and will 
not get very far. The dramatic method is the 
child’s natural vehicle of expression and assim- 
ilation. Later, in his expression of the dra- 
matic impulse, he begins to weave the different 
incidents into a short, simple plot. His ideas 
are now just beginning to be related to each 
other, so that he can play with some thought of 
sequence. While the dramatic expression of 
a child of this age must be left free, he should 


9Palmer, The Play Life of the First Eight Years. 
[109] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


be aided by asking questions and by sugges- 
tions to add successive incidents to his plot. 
Thus he will weave more and more incidents 
into a plot and tell the story connectedly and 
with descriptive language. For it is impor- 
tant that he begin to relate, to organize, and 
to compose his experience into a whole. He 
should be provided with experiences round 
about him, and with stories of right moral is- 
sues. ‘Through dramatic expression he catches 
the spirit of good behavior and often experi- 
ences the moods of morality before he can un- 
derstand fully the truth of the story. 

During this period a child may illustrate 
some simple action in pantomime. ‘This is the 
first step in dramatization. This pantomime 
may be followed with some simple character 
sketches which a child may portray quickly 
and with both gestures and language, such as 
a father, a mother, a fairy. At first, he por- 
trays these with his body. Language will be- 
gin to be the necessary accompaniment of ges- 
ture. Eventually he will add words to make 

[110] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


the portrayal more interesting and vivid. 
Next, he may want to portray moods such as 
those of a happy child or brave soldier. 

Story playing also is particularly adapted 
to children of this age because it affords oppor- 
tunity for free expression and allows the child 
to interpret the story in the light of his own 
experience. It is extremely important that 
the story dramatized be within the realm of his 
experience. It is a well established fact that 
imagination is dependent upon actual experi- 
ence. In the processes of creative imagina- 
tion there are three steps that make the final 
image possible. First is the recall of old 
events and kindred experience. ‘This is fol- 
lowed by a process of selection of facts, events, 
and details which will become the elements of 
the final image. ‘This selection is followed in 
turn by a combination of these selected details 
by which the mind completes the picture it is 
trying to create. 

Picture posing is adapted to these depart- 
ments. The picture to be of value must, of 

[111] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


course, bear a message to the child. It must 
present a situation in which he can see himself. 
With pictures, as with stories, there must be 
simple action, an expression of a single mes- 
sage. A child of this age would have no ap- 
preciation of symbolism. At first these activi- 
ties should all be in bold outline sketches, with- 
out the necessity of memorizing anything and 
with freedom to invent and choose. 

Later, prepared plays may be used. But 
great care should be used in the choice of such 
plays. All the principles discussed as apply- 
ing to voluntary dramatic expression obtain 
in more formal dramatic expression if it is to be 
educationally effective. Perhaps after the 
primary grades most of the dramatic expres- 
sion will be by use of prepared plays, either 
written by the class or chosen from standard 
lists. A junior child resents anything that 
partakes of childish play and is ready for work 
more pretentious. He will be interested in the 
plot, in the theme, and in the setting, staging, 
and costumes. ‘This interest will also continue 

[112] 


IN RELIGIOUS EDUCATION 


through the various departments of the young 
people’s division. 

Great care should be taken in the choice of 
prepared plays. No play should be chosen 
haphazardly. One needs to ask various ques- 
tions. When and where is it to be given? Is 
a long or short play desired? Who are to be 
the participants? Is it being given for the 
sheer joy of doing something that will have ar- 
tistic or educative value; or is it a part of a 
pedagogical scheme? The answers to these 
questions will determine the type of play but 
not always the quality. There are three tests 
ofaplay. First, it must have literary quality ; 
second, it must have dramatic quality—which 
means an interesting plot; third, it must have 
good ethical value or contain some dominant 
truth. It is a sad truth that much that has 
been produced in the field of drama for use in 
religious education will not stand these three 
tests. Plays that contain a lesson are too of- 
ten didactic. ‘There seems to be a tendency to 
confuse dramatic art and didactic morality. 

[113] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Dramatic propaganda ceases to be effective 
when it ceases to be dramatic. All subjects 
are open for dramatic representation, but one 
must remain an artist while teaching them. A 
play is not a good play or worthy of produc- 
tion when it consists of layers of lectures or 
sermonettes sandwiched between bits of action. 

The use of drama for purposes of recreation 
does not fall within the limits of this discussion. 
For this purpose, however, dramatic expres- 
sion has been found very valuable.*® 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Bates, Alfred, The Drama (Religious), Vol. IV, 
Athenian Press, London Society, 1903. 

Candler, Martha, Drama in Religious Service, Century 
Co., 1922. 

Galloway, T. W., The Drama in the Church, Pilgrim 
Press, 1922 (a very helpful manual). 

Meredith, William V., Pageantry and Dramatics in Re- 
ligious Education, Abingdon Press, 1921. 


10 Richardson, The Church at Play; Candler, Drama in Re- 
ligious Service. 


114) 


CHAPTER VI 


TYPES OF DRAMATIC ACTIVITIES 


All work which is imaginative, constructive, 
and vivid is dramatic. It is this interpretation 
of the drama, rather than the more limited 
one, that needs to find its way into the program 
of religious education. It is not necessary to 
present a play in order to use dramatic inter- 
pretation in the teaching of religion and mor- 
als, but there is a need to present the materials 
dramatically, which means that an emotional 
quality has been infused into the ideas to be in- 
stilled, for emotion is the connecting link be- 
tween facts and life. While all activities in 
which the creative imagination finds expression 
might be called dramatic, these activities tend 
to fall into certain recognized classes. 


PICTURESQUE 


Statue Posing.—This type may be used with 
very young children. It can be played any- 
[115] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


where and any number of children may be 
used. Choose a child to be the exhibitor and 
take the others in turn to be statues, while the 
waiting group forms the audience. Then 
when the statues are ready, the exhibitor an- 
nounces the subject. At a given signal the 
child takes his position and holds it until 
another signal is given. Such subjects may 
be used as: 


Child Picking Flowers. 
Mother Sewing. 
George Washington. 
Columbus. 

King David. 

Joseph. 

Joan of Arc. 


Thoughts and feeling such as joy, laughter, 
kindness may be represented. 

The Tableau.—This is an attempt to pro- 
duce pictorial effects of certain situations or 
to reproduce certain pictures. ‘The idea of re- 

[116] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


producing famous masterpieces has usually 
been associated with the more ambitious efforts 
of public entertainments. Such living pic- 
tures are seen in the highest class productions 
in the most refined surroundings as well as in 
the ring of the modern circus. There the aim 
is to make the grouping and costuming as 
nearly like the original as possible. But to 
adopt this method as a means of education is a 
comparatively new departure. The aim here 
is an entirely different one; namely, develop- 
ing self-expression, helping the child toward 
flexibility and freedom, aiding him in an ap- 
preciation and understanding of art. This 
type of dramatic activity may be used with dif- 
ferent age groups, the selection of subject and 
method of reproduction being suited to the 
needs and capacities of the group." One may 
make her own stories and build a picture that 
will assist in telling the story. Such subjects 
may be used as: 

rane: How to Show Pictures to Children, Chap. V, pp. 


[117] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


People from Other Lands. 
Dutch Tulip Grower. 
Italian Singer. 

Children of the Orient. 


Such pictures may be formed to illustrate 
literature as the following: 


The Ruggles Family. 

Charles Dickens’s Boys and Girls. 
Children of the Bible. 

King Arthur and His Knights. 
Hiawatha. 

The Barefoot Boy. 

The Village Blacksmith. 

The Children’s Hour. 

Joseph and His Brethren. 

Queen Esther before the King. 


The Pantomime.—A pantomime is a play 
without words. It is composed wholly of 
movement and attitudes. It may be the im- 
personation of a single character or the acting 
out of a story or plot. Pantomime is perhaps 

[118] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


the most primitive form of dramatic represen- 
tation, as the gesture antedated the spoken 
word. This type of dramatic activity is par- 
ticularly adapted to very young children, as 
this is one of the first steps in dramatization. 
One type of pantomime is dramatic reading, 
visualized through a living picture representa- 
tion of the text. Here an interlocutor reads 
the lines descriptive of the pantomime and 
pictorial effects. 


STorRY PLAYING 


Another type of dramatic activity is the 
dramatization of stories or of situations. The 
simplest of these is, perhaps, story playing. 
In using this method one of the important 
steps is the choice of the story. There are cer- 
tain essential characteristics of a story suited 
to dramatization. First, the story must have a 
good basic structure, by which is meant a be- 
ginning, a setting, a climax, and a satisfactory 
ending. Second, there must be a succession 

| [119] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


of events or movement throughout the story. 
Third, the story must involve much aetion. 
Fourth, the story must be morally sound ac- 
cording to our present-day standards. The 
story must contain an outstanding truth to be 
revealed through the characters of the story 
and action. ‘There are stories that teach a 
truth that would be marred by such treatment. 
This list would include such stories as “The 
Baby Jesus in the Manger,” and “John’s Mes- 
sage about Jesus.” It is not wise to choose a 
story in which the character of Jesus must be 
taken. I ifth, the story must deal with experi- 
ences within the understanding of the partici- 
pating group.” 

Stories may be found that will meet all the 
requirements, or mere incidents may be drama- 
tized but without the whole plot. Other sto- 
ries will require adaptation to make them us- 
able. After a suitable story has been chosen, 
the next step is the telling of the story. In 
addition to all the principles involved in good 


2 Miller, Dramatization in the Church School, p. 8. 
[120] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


story telling, there are a few principles espe- 
cially applicable to telling a story for story 
playing. First, the story should be told in 
such a way as to emphasize the events and ac- 
tion. Second, direct discourse is used. ‘Third, 
the story must be told in such a way as to de- 
velop simple and vivid mental pictures. The 
next step is the blocking out of the pictures and 
scenes and the choice of characters.* The chil- 
dren should act the story out as they think it 
should be. This work with the primary 
grades should be free and spontaneous. They 
may not be able to put the story in fixed form. 
The words and actions will be changing with 
differing interpretations. 


THE MASQUE 


A masque is a short allegorical play in which 
the principal characters are representations 
of great movements, such as Christianity, Ed- 
ucation; of organizations, such as the Church, 


8 Miller, Dramatization of Bible Stories, p. 16. 
[121] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


schools, etc.; or of countries. For example, 
if a teacher were trying to teach a lesson in 
world fellowship, she might choose one child 
as a pilgrim in search of happiness... Charac- 
ters representing various countries might come 
and make an offering characteristic of their 
country. Thus Holland might bring a tulip; 
Russia, fur; Africa, a diamond; ete. After 
accepting all of these things which are useful, 
the pilgrim still feels something is lacking. 
Then Peace or World Fellowship makes her 
entrance. ‘They all clasp hands and sing some 
appropriate hymn. 


DRAMATIZATION OF EVENTS AND SITUATIONS 


Dramatization of literature, events, and sit- 
uations with juniors, intermediates, and young 
people is quite a different process. ‘They will 
be able to present a more finished product. 
The simplest will be the dramatic dialogue, 
dealing with separate situations and making no 
attempt to present a dramatic unit, like the 

[122] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


scene from the life of Joseph when he revealed 
himself to his brethren, or Daniel called into 
the king’s banqueting room to read the hand- 
writing on the wall, or David playing before 
King Saul. Or it may be the dramatization 
of various situations chosen from a story of 
the Bible, or a classic, combined in such a way 
as to form a single dramatic unit with a well 
defined climax, as the story of Joseph, Daniel, 
Esther, or Ruth. The story of Ruth may be 
used by selection of those scenes which will 
give the whole plot and reach a well-defined 
climax. The writer has found that juniors, 
intermediates, and young people are much in- 
terested in this type of dramatization. ‘They 
are interested not only in the staging of their 
results but in the structure of a good drama as 
well. 

The first step is to choose the theme, for any 
good play must have a leading controlling 
theme. A story simply for a story’s sake has 
a tendency to become involved and intricate 

[123] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


beyond the bounds of dramatic art. A play 
that sets out to demonstrate a clear-cut basic 
idea will likely be held by its very purpose to 
organic unity. ‘The scenes chosen for drama- 
tization must all bear upon the central theme 
or idea. 

Every good play has a beginning—exposi- 
tion which includes all primary action up to 
the point where the play begins. It sets forth 
the characters of the play and gives something 
of their past history and their relationship to 
each other. It states the situation of the play, 
introduces a conflict, and creates an element of 
suspense. From this point there must be 
growth and development, with increased com- 
plication, leading on to a climax and dénoue- 
ment. ‘The characters should be so chosen and 
marshaled and the dialogue so written as to 
accomplish these definite ends. ‘Thus the 
story of Ruth might be used for dramatization 
as follows: 


THEME: Loyalty’s Reward. 
[124] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 
SCENE I 
Naomi’s Home in Moas 


SETTING: Indoors. 

Time: Evening. 

CHARACTERS: Naomi, Ruth, Orpha, neigh- 
bors, servants. 

DIALOGUE AND AcTION: These should do the 
following things: 


1. Tell the story to the present. 

2. Introduce the characters and show their 
relationship. 

3. State the present situation, including 
Ruth’s choice. 

4. Suggest a complication of the situation, 
such as might be expressed by the question: 
Will Ruth’s choice lead to happiness? 


SCENE If 


Naomi’s Oxtp Home 


SETTING: Indoors. 
Time: Evening. 
[125] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


CHARACTERS: Ruth, Naomi, Old Neighbors, 
Boaz, pictorial characters (servants and 
others used to complete the picture). 

DIALOGUE AND ACTION: 


1. Intervening action. 

2. Naomi’s rejoicing over her return home. 

3. Ruth’s loneliness and doubt as to the wis- 
dom of her choice. 

4. Buth’s regard for Boaz. 

5. Introduction of the nearer relative who 
might claim Ruth (this heightens the sus- 
pense). 


SCENE Il 


SETTING: Indoors. 

Time: Morning. 

CuHaracrTers: Ruth, Boaz, Naomi, pictorial 
characters. 

DIALOGUE AND ACTION: 


1. Learning of the satisfactory adjustment 
with the nearer relative. 
[126] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


2. The betrothal. 
3. Ruth’s reward. 
4, Naomi’s satisfaction. 


(Enp) 


Such stories as Van Dyke’s The Lost Word 
lend themselves beautifully to such treatment. 
THEME: Man needs God. 


SCENE I 
THE GARDEN SCENE 


SeTtine: A Grecian garden. 
Time: Christmas day. 
CHARACTERS: Hermas, Old Man. 
DIALOGUE AND ACTION: 


1. The story to the present. 

2. Dissatisfaction of Hermas because of his 
religious views. 

3. His desire to forget about his religious 
obligations. 

4. The Old Man’s magic. 

5. The loss of the Word. 

[127] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 
SCENE II 
THE Home or DEMETRIUS 


SETTING: Indoors. 

Time: Morning.: 

CHARACTERS: Hermas, old friends, many 
servants. 

DIALOGUE AND ACTION: 


1. Intervening action. 

2. The illness of Hermas’s father. 

3. His call for Hermas to comfort him in 
his dying hour. 

4. Hermas helpless without the Lost Word. 

5. The father’s death. 

6. Hermas’s despair. 


SCENE III 
THe Home or HERMAS 


Serrinc: A garden. 
Timer: Morning. 
CHARACTERS: Hermas, Athenias (Hermas’s 
wife), friends, many servants. 
[128] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


DIALOGUE AND ACTION: 


1. Tell of Hermas’s wedding. 

2. Complete release from religious restric- 
tion. 

3. The growing discontent. 

4. The wife suggests prayer. 

5. Hermas’s attempt to pray. 

6. Failure and despair. 


SCENE IV 
THE Home or HERMAS 


SETTING: An inner room. 

Time: Night. 

CHARACTERS: Hermas, Athenias, Physician, 
Apostle John, friends, servants. 

DIALOGUE AND ACTION: 


1. Intervening action—the race, and ac- 
cident to child. 
2. The despair of Hermas and Athenias. 
3. Hermas’s attempt to pray; failure. 
4. The coming of the Apostle John. 
[129] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


5. The Lost Word given back. 
6. The prayer of gratitude and petition for 
child’s life. 
7. The recovery of the child. 
(ENnp) 


THE PAGEANT 


Pageantry is a distinct type of drama havy- 
ing its own technique. In its structural as- 
pects it is narrative rather than dramatic, and 
the sweep and scale of its movement are larger. 
The story of a pageant is generally the life of 
a community, organization, movement, or in- 
dividual told in a series of chronologically ar- 
ranged episodes. Each episode is complete in 
itself, hence different from the acts of a play. 
The unity of a pageant consists in its purpose 
and total impression. ‘The color, the move- 
ment, the pictorial scenes are of much more 
importance than the dialogue. The pageant 
has come into very common use by commu- 
nities, churches, schools, and other organiza- 

[130] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


tions. In fact it has come to be known as a 
democratic or community art. Bearing in 
mind the above differences, the technique of 
production may be said to be the same as for 
other dramatic work. 


THE PREPARED PLAY 


A play is supposed to be the development 
of the abstract truth which is its germ. A 
play must be not only one of ideas but one of 
emotions as well. The idea is excellent to give 
a meaning and unity to a play; but, after all, 
emotion, not logic, is the stuff out of which 
drama is made. ‘The really great play is the 
play which first stirs our emotions profoundly 
and then gives a meaning and direction to our 
feelings by the power of some great underly- 
ing idea.* The theme must be worked out by 
logical action prompted by genuine emotion. 

There should be a clearly defined conflict. 
The conflict may be of human desires and 


4A. B. Walkley, Drama and Life, 
[131] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


wills or of ideas. It should be a struggle in 
which we may participate—a genuine strug- 
gle taken from a life situation, that expresses 
genuine passions, yearnings, sympathies, and 
vital human emotions. ‘These emotions as ex- 
pressed by characters will develop into the ac- 
tion of the plot. 

The characters themselves must be real hu- 
mans, motivated by human impulses, emo- 
tions, yearning. The qualities of each should 
be distinct and interesting and show a reason- 
able change and development of character. 
The idealist is likely to give us a picture of 
human nature, as he wishes it were, and out- 
does human goodness, while an extreme realist 
exceeds human nature in vileness and wicked- 
ness. The characters of the play must achieve 
the solution of the play’s problem. In the old 
Greek plays, if the hero of the play was caught 
in a peculiarly tight place, a god or goddess 
was let down through an aperture of the dome 
and either killed the villain or rescued the hero. 
As a rule, miracles are not effective on the 

[132] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


stage. Far too many of our religious dramas 
depend for their interest upon some miracle or 
magic. 

Just the fact that a play is built around a re- 
ligious theme does not necessarily recommend 
it. The structure and technique of the play 
are the means by which the play is presented. 
They determine the degree in which the theme 
will be made convincing and given reality and 
dramatic appeal. If a play is truly dramatic, 
there will be a well defined conflict between 
human, desires and ideas; the truth will be re- 
vealed in action, not in sermonizing; the most 
important events of the play will take place on 
the stage; the characters in the play will deter- 
mine the outcome without the intervention of 
external forces. ‘To accomplish these ends the 
play must be of good dramatic structure, be 
unified by a basic idea—the theme—and have 
good character delineation, the characters act- 
ing from proper motives. 

A play to be of real value in a program of 
religious education must have a moral and re- 

[133] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


ligious value as well as dramatic values. The 
thesis of the play must be ethically sound; that 
is, it must agree with present-day standards of 
moral and religious conduct. If immoral con- 
duct and wrong attitudes are presented, they 
must meet with inevitable punishment. In 
Pinero’s The Second Mrs. Tanqueray, im- 
morality and wrong attitudes are presented. 
But as one follows the development of the plot 
he witnesses Paula (the woman with a past) in 
her despair recognizing that her past will al- 
ways stare her in the face, that for her there 
is no future that will not be colored by that 
past. Paula speaks: 

I believe the future is only the past again, entered 
through the gate. ... Youll see me then, at last. 
.. . And I shall have no weapon to fight with—not 
one serviceable little bit of prettiness left me to defend 
myself with! A worn-out creature ...a ghost, a 
wreck, a caricature, a candle that gutters, call such an 


end what you like! . . . And this is the future you talk 
about ! 


As one reads this speech with its evident de- 
spair he is convinced that the allurement of sin 
[134] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


is presented no more vividly than the unhappi- 
ness resulting from it. One’s sympathies are 
with the forces of right conduct. 

For use in religious education there must 
also be constructive religious inspiration in the 
play. When one reads the final speeches of 
Simon in The Rock by Mary Hamlin, he 
achieves a real victory with Simon. He is 
in the depths of despair because he denied 
Christ. He loathes himself for his cowardice. 
He suddenly realizes that the reason for his 
failure is that he has not yet discovered the 
resources of spiritual power. Then he ex- 
claims: “I, of myself, can do nothing. O 
God, I know it now. . . . The Rock I thought 
to build the Master’s kingdom on hath crum- 
bled into dust. Worthless, undone, shall Je- 
hovah speak his truth through me?... I 
dare not hope.” He is then reminded that it 
is only the empty vessel that God can fill. It 
is then that something of comprehension comes 
to him and he says: “I am empty: Jehovah, 
fill me. I am weak. O Master, give me 

[135] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


strength. . . . O God, what flame of fire is 
this I feel within my veins? (With a trium- 
phant note he emerges from this moral con- 
flict.) It as eternal strength! O Friend, in 
me shall thy truth live! O Jesus—Master— 
at last, J wnderstand, I am Peter the Rock.’ 


LiIturRGIcCAL DRAMA 


The liturgical drama is a ritualistic drama 
or a true drama of worship. At present, there 
is a marked revival of this form. 

We live in a critically analytical age. We 
no longer hesitate to criticize the expressions 
of the most sacred sentiments of life. This 
criticism extends even to worship; in fact, it 
is held that uncriticized programs of worship 
are likely to be ineffective. The truth is that 
far too many of our worship programs are 
tiresome and uninteresting. They lack unity, 
simplicity, and beauty—the qualities which 
make a service impressive. The deepest joys 
of human experience are its spiritual joys— 

[136] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


peace, hope, trust, forgiveness, and service. 
The faith of religion should be set forth in 
noble, sublime, and sensible forms of worship 
that would give rest and refuge, recreation 
after moral conflict in practical situations, com- 
fort and solace after sorrow—that would bring 
composure and peace and calm of spirit to the 
worshiper. We who are interested in the 
Church and are responsible for the building 
of the service have but ourselves to blame that 
so many people turn to the theater, the art 
museum, and the music hall for the only ex- 
pression of their impulse to worship, and feel 
that, by comparison, the church service is dull 
and uninteresting. The story is told of a 
little boy, who, after his return from the 
theater, exclaimed to his mother, “Oh, Mother, 
if you’d just go to the theater once, you'd 
never go to prayer meeting again as long as 
you live.” His response to the beauty of color 
and the vivid imagery of the theater is full 
of suggestion. This response was not rea- 
soned. His attitude was receptive, which is 
[137] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


the attitude of worship. ‘The beauty of color, 
of music, of movement, and the witchery of 
lighting had wrought in him an experience of 
life expansion. Had such beauty been em- 
ployed in the service of his church, what 
spiritual enlargement might have been his! 

In building a liturgical drama there are 
certain principles concerning worship one must 
keep in mind. First, there is the necessity 
of leading one who presents himself for wor- 
ship to frontiers of the spiritual world. It is 
necessary to harmonize the souls of the wor- 
shipers so that there will be a unity of feeling 
which will establish an accordance with things 
divine. The voluntary, the processional 
hymn, the call to worship, induce that quiet 
sense of reverence and humility, that con- 
sciousness of the presence of the Perfect One, 
which alone makes the highest worship possible. 
The quality of the light, the charm of the 
music, the processional movement, the har- 
mony of the color of the interior decoration, the 
absence of incongruous or annoying features, 

[138] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


the precision of the service, the comfort of the 
worshipers, the artistic representation of 
biblical events, the art of expression exhibited 
by the leaders of the service—all of these make 
a setting in which the soul may have a keen 
awareness of God’s presence and may truly 
worship. Each of these items, however it may 
be colored by religious motives or baptized by 
spiritual power, is fundamentally a question 
of art. The technique of structure and use is 
that of drama. 

Second, this worshipful mood, when once 
established, demands expression. Without 
such expression the mood may pass without 
fruition, or it may stifle the worshiper’s further 
normal responses. Means for expression must 
be provided. Since one can hold devotional 
attitudes for only a limited time, an oppor- 
tunity for the expression of exaltation and 
reverence must be provided early in the service. 
To be of highest value, such an exercise must 
be one in which all the worshipers may share, 
such as the singing of a noble hymn, the re- 

[139] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


sponsive reading of scriptural or other devo- 
tional material, or the use of a common prayer. 
Here the liturgical drama excels all other 
forms; the congregation is more than an audi- 
ence, in that each member participates in the 
drama. The beautifully dignified artistic 
forms of liturgy are fit instruments for the 
expression of the soul’s loftiest sentiments 
toward God. 

Third, there must be provided in the litur- 
gical drama sufficiently thoughtful and moral 
content to cause the worshiper to remember 
the practical world round about him. This 
part of the service should be filled with definite 
content or the service will give a vague, unre- 
flective, imaginative outlook. Such content 
may be supplied by the reading of the Scrip- 
tures setting forth previous human experience 
with the divine. Often a story or a great 
picture may be used to present a real life situa- 
tion in which contact with the divine has en- 
abled one to meet that situation honorably. 
Again the dramatization of some _ biblical 

[140] 


TYPES OF ACTIVITY 


event or of some moral conflict will present the 
moral law in action, thus assisting the wor- 
shiper by furnishing content of ideas and 
moral ideals. 

Fourth, the liturgical drama should cul- 
minate in definite decision. The worshiper 
has had a vision of Divinity followed by a 
natural expression of humility; he has shared 
in the service of praise; he has had revived 
fundamental ideals to be expressed in conduct; 
and he should be in a mood for dedication. 
The worship for him has not had great value 
if it fails at this point. Such dedication may 
be expressed by repeating a pledge, by sing- 
ing a suitable hymn, by offering a prayer of 
dedication, or by the presentation of some 
great work of art that will crystallize the mood 
for dedication. 

The liturgical drama serves the Church in a 
unique way. It reaches its highest useful- 
ness, however, only when the one in charge is 
willing to pay the necessary price, in toil and 
care and patience. He may have a message 

[141] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


from God, but he is responsible for the form of 
its delivery. To build a successful liturgical 
drama he must understand the law and tech- 
nique of drama and worship. He must under- 
stand not only the possibilities of his art but its 
limitations as well, so that he will not under- 
take to do what cannot be done by the means 
at his command. He must master the tech- 
nique of both drama and worship that he may 
give a fitting form to whatever ideas he pos- 
sesses. 

Each of the varied types of dramatic activity 
is thus seen to have its own special value in 
the church’s program of religious education. 
Hence the necessity for a skilful and purpose- 
ful use of the method. The next question, 
therefore, is that of technique. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Baker, George B., Dramatic Technique, Houghton 
Mifflin Co. 
Miller, Elizabeth Irwin, Dramatization of Bible Stories. 
Simons, Sarah, and Orr, Clem I., Dramatization, Scott, 
Foresman & Co., 19138. 
Wendlandt, O. J., Living Statuary, Manchester. 
[142] 


CHAPTER VII 


THE TECHNIQUE OF DRAMATIC 
PRODUCTION 


NEED oF TECHNIQUE 


There is a need for the development of a 
technique in the use of dramatics in the pro- 
gram of the Church. Much of the work has 
evidenced an entire lack of knowledge of such 
technique; and it has received much deserved 
criticism from those whose respect and help are 
needed if the use of the dramatic method is to 
be continued. Poorly produced plays have no 
artistic value; and without artistry no play 
will convey its message. ‘This is a principle of 
which church workers have frequently been ig- 
norant. 

Clear Definition of Purpose.—It is impor- 
tant that the director of dramatic activities or 
the teacher making use of the dramatic method 

[143] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


have a knowledge of the psychological basis of 
the dramatic impulse. He should know the 
educational value of dramatic representation. 
He should have a knowledge of its place in the 
program and know when to use this method. 
He should have clearly in mind that the aim is 
the selection, control, and development of the 
dramatic impulse in order to secure a progres- 
sive religious development, finer and more 
powerful social impulses, in short, to cooperate 
with the universal dramatic impulse to develop 
the whole being. 


DRAMATIC EXPRESSION Must 
Be ARTISTIC 


It is true that the use of the dramatic 
method in religious education is different from 
its professional use. ‘This fact, however, does 
not give license for carelessness in production. 
Walkley in his criticisms of a lecture by M. 
Brieux in London, “Piece-a-These,’’ which 

[144] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


was a plea for the thesis play, says: ‘What 
is a dramatic thesis? A moral judgment on 
the mutual actions and reactions of human 
beings in a given situation. If the actions are 
convincingly and artistically represented, the 
moral judgment is brought home. . . . The 
easiest way of invalidating the judgment— 
and this is the pitfall of the thesis play—is 
by imperfect artistic representation of the 


ease.’ } 


There is a fine saying of La Bruy- 
ere: “If a work elevates your mind and in- 
spires you with noble and courageous feelings, 
seek no other rule for judging it; it is good 
and wrought by a master hand.” But it must 
be borne in mind that a crude production will 
not stimulate such emotions. They can be 
induced only by the employment of good 
dramatic structure and artistic production. 
“Any modern play too often divorces itself 
entirely from the visual standpoint, in which 
fully one half of the artistic importance of a 
1 Walkley, Drama with a Mission, Forum, 66: 489-490, Dec. 


21, 1921. 
[145] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


play consists. . . . Color and the natural and 
simple grace of movement make up more than 
half of the mystery. For before a play can 
be a fit instrument for education, moral, ethi- 
cal, or political, it must fulfil its own mission 
as a play—it must make the appeal of Beauty 
both to the eye and ear. 

“As a nation, we are without that primitive 
simplicity and unity of religion which has 
always gone hand in hand with art. . . . Per- 
haps in America, it is only our youngest chil- 
dren who still have religious and artistic sensi- 
bilities uncorrupted by the materialism of the 
age. The need, therefore, of strengthening 
and prolonging this state of artistic receptivity 
cannot be too strongly emphasized. 

“If we may instill into our children an ap- 
preciation of the beauty inherent in the early 
religion and in the principles of their artistic 
expression, we may yet live to be a nation 
having the religion of art—and not go down 
like the Phoenicians a nation of commerce 
without any path of marble or grave of song to 

[146] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


mark the place of those who have loved the 
arts sti 

All dramatic expression, then, to be of real 
value, must be artistic, whether it is the free, 
happy, spontaneous expression of children, 
the class-room dramatization of an episode by 
older people, or the more formal dramatic pro- 
duction. 


CHOICE OF PLAY 


The choice of type of dramatic activity and 
play structure have already been discussed. 
To the suggestions already given might be 
added a few guiding principles to aid in the 
selection of a play to be presented. In the 
program of religious education it is certainly 
desirable to select a play that is worth the time 
and thought that must be spent on it. 

Ability of Cast—The limitations of ama- 
teurs in general must be kept in mind. An 
amateur may have intelligence, a breadth of 


2 Henderson, ddam’s Dream and Other Miracle Plays, In- 


troduction. 
[147] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


culture, and an education superior to that of 
the professional; but he lacks prolonged drill 
in stage methods. It is impossible for him to 
produce the same effects as the professional. 
Most amateurs are timid about expressing too 
tender feelings and too strong emotions. On 
the other hand, the sentiments must not be so 
light, the fun so insipid, the issue so trivial, the 
whole so vapid that it fails to make an appeal. 

The age and ability of the participating 
group should be considered. The situation 
presented must be within the comprehension, 
if not the actual experience, of its members. 
If one is choosing a play in which one particu- 
lar character dominates, that character must 
be strong. Take, for example, the play by 
Kennedy, The Servant in the House. The 
role of Manson requires skilful handling; and 
if no suitable person can be found to play the 
role, one might better never undertake the 
production of this play. 

Soundness of Sentiments.—There is a vast 
difference between sentiments and sentimen- 

[148] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


tality. There should be opportunity for the 
expression of deeply seated human sentiments, 
such as_ self-sacrifice, patriotism, service, 
mother love, friendships, ete. Plays of direct 
and strong emotional appeal, whether serious 
or comic, are best adapted for amateur pro- 
duction. 

Characters.——One should choose plays with 
firmly drawn, broadly colored characters who 
are motivated by human passions, directly 
expressing these passions, with plenty of ac- 
tion suggested, and placed in solidly con- 
structed situations of simple and primitive 
emotions. 

Balance in Acting Values—The play 
should give opportunity for good acting and 
impersonation. It should give fair oppor- 
tunity to each of the principal actors. Each 
one should at least have a chance in one good 
scene. 

Ends to Be Desired——The purpose of giv- 
ing the play will have a decided influence in 
its choice. Is the play given for dramatic 

[149] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


training, literary values, entertainment, edu- 
cational purposes, or worship? 

Conditions of Production——The choice of 
a play must be determined in some degree by 
the conditions under which it is to be produced. 
Is there a stage, and what is its equipment? 
Are suitable properties available? Can 
proper costumes be secured? What financial 
support may be expected? What are the 
tastes and religious views of the expected 
audience? A play should be chosen with a 
full understanding of the conditions under 
which it is to be presented. 


CHOICE OF CAST 


Methods of Choice-——The choice of the cast 
is the next step in play production. There 
are two methods which are in common use. 
The try-out system is a democratic method 
and one that stimulates real interest. It has 
the advantage of securing a cast that are very 
eager to act. It is a particularly fine method 

[150] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


where there is a dramatic club. The object of 
the try-out is, first, to determine the fitness of 
the aspirant for this particular play and, 
second, to ascertain his suitability for a par- 
ticular role. 

The other method is the arbitrary choice of 
cast by the director or committee. In any 
case, the director should have a great deal to 
say about the choice of cast. 

Standard of Measurement.—There are three 
chief considerations. First, physical suitabil- 
ity. One must always remember the magic 
of make-up. However, persons should not be 
chosen for roles requiring such physical traits 
as muscular strength, height, leanness, solidity, 
and grace if they themselves are deficient in 
those qualities. Such qualities cannot be 
simulated by make-up. Second, voice con- 
siderations. ‘There must be some degree of 
control, flexibility, and strength of voice. 
Third, native ability. An individual must 
give evidence of sufficient natural intelligence 
to conceive the part he is to play and to give 

[151] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


proper emotional responses to feel the part. 

The need of the individual should also be 
a determining factor in the selection. For 
example, the writer in choosing a cast for a 
play was undecided as to what individual 
should take the part of an officious trouble- 
maker. She had two girls in mind: one who 
was naturally of a lovable, sweet disposition, 
who had had much experience in play-acting 
and who would take the part beautifully; an- 
other, a girl who was true to the type and 
needed to see herself as others saw her. ‘The 
latter was chosen for the part and, as the re- 
hearsing progressed, approached the teacher 
in her studio with this question, “Why did you 
choose me for that part?” The question 
opened the way for a conversation which the 
teacher had long desired. The student left 
with this statement, “Vl bet I make every- 
body hate that character.” ‘This example 
serves to illustrate consideration of the needs 
of an individual. Ina similar way, the writer 
has found opportunity to give some students 

[152] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


expression of a longing for achievement which 
their actual social standing had denied them. 


PREPARATION OF SCRIPT 


The script is the typed or printed version 
of the text of the play as used in rehearsals. 
Either of two methods may be employed. 
First, a complete copy may be provided for 
each player. Second, the use of the complete 
text may be limited to the producer. In this 
case, the script given to each actor presents to 
him his cues, which contain the last four or 
five words of the speech spoken previously to 
his, and his lines, with enough stage direction 
to enable him to know his positions on the 
stage and his exits and entrances. Directors 
are not agreed as to which is the better method. 
Each has its advantages and disadvantages. 
The first plan enables each participant to 
study the whole play. But he may form in- 
dependent notions as to how the play should 
be conducted which may prove embarrassing 

[153] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


to the producer and to the other participants. 
Using the second method, he has only his own 
lines to study and read and is not distracted by 
others’ parts. 

The producer’s script will have written, de- 
tailed stage directions for each character, clear 
diagrams for the successive stage pictures, 
and full directions as to manner of speaking 
the lines. There should be double space be- 
tween speeches with the name of the character 
centered. The margins should be wide. It 
assists greatly to have speeches in one color, 
using another color of ribbon for stage direc- 
tions, which includes exits, entrances, and im- 
portant changes of positions. These are 
written on the margins, while directions for 
individual characters should be written in- 
tegrally in parentheses. 


REHEARSALS 


Common Definition of Situation—After 
the play has been chosen, the cast selected, and 
[154] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


the scripts prepared, the next step is rehearsal. 
The first rehearsal is opened by general dis- 
cussion, led by the producer, who must know 
the play. He has divided the text for care- 
ful study, not only into scenes, but has isolated 
for study every episode, incident, and speech 
which helps to advance the plot and to deline- 
ate character, or which affords opportunity 
for the development of beautiful stage pic- 
tures. Armed with this information, he will 
seek to assist the entire cast to discover the 
nature and spirit of the play, its problem, and 
the final solution of the problem. “Actual 
common participation in common activities 
implies a common definition of the situation. 
. . . A definition of the situation precedes and 
limits any possible action.” * This principle 
holds true in dramatic production for educa- 
tional purposes. Jor such use is not a matter 
of the mechanical placing of characters for 
demonstration purposes, but rather one of se- 


3 Park and Burgess, Introduction to the Science of Sociology, 
p. 764. 


[155] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


curing a natural and spontaneous expression of 
subjective attitudes. 

Development of Plot.—After the above 
have been determined the next task is to dis- 
cover how each incident develops the plot and 
what the mood and movement of each act 
should be to secure its clearest development. 
Consideration then should be given to the con- 
tribution of each participant—whether he cre- 
ates the situation, responds to the situation, or 
solves the problem. At first, it would be con- 
fusing for the participant to study the char- 
acter critically. Attention should rather be 
given to his contribution to the plot. The 
next step is the preliminary blocking out of 
the action. In this, little or no attention need 
be given to details; merely outlining of action 
and reading of lines are all that are necessary. 
Such matters as entrances, exits, and stage 
crossings will be presented as the rehearsals 
proceed. While the producer must guard 
against giving arbitrary directions, he must 
keep the reins in his own hands continuously. 

[156] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


There can be but one director. He has the 
final word without argument. He bears the 
same relation to his cast as the conductor 
does to his orchestra. He will welcome sug- 
gestions made in the proper manner and spirit. 
The writer has insisted that suggestions come 
to her personally and not be “shouted out’’ 
before the whole cast. The director may even 
give credit for a suggestion; but there is noth- 
ing more demoralizing to any rehearsal than 
to have some one call out on the stage, “Oh, 
don’t you think it ought to be done this way?” 
This immediately precipitates a “free for all” 
discussion. ‘The way suggested may be far 
better than the original one the producer had 
in mind. He may be very glad to use it, but 
it may necessitate the change of other plans. 
If the suggestion be made to him personally, 
he can relate it to his whole plan; and if he 
finds this cannot be done, he can explain to 
the person making the suggestion and not be 
made to appear like an unreasonable auto- 
crat. ‘The director must remember, however, 
[157] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


that amateurs cannot readily assume a part 
requiring emotional expression beyond their 
experience, and to turn them aside to an at- 
tempt which they feel to be unnatural will 
usually be unsuccessful. They must be per- 
suaded to feel at home in speaking their lines. 
Therefore the director must allow them as 
much freedom as possible in expressing their 
own interpretation. 


ACTION 


Stage presence, or the manner of standing 
or moving about on the stage presents special 
difficulties. It should be the aim of the direc- 
tor of dramatic activities in a program of 
religious education to eliminate any sugges- 
tion of theatrical conventions in the movement 
and gestures of his players. Acting does not 
mean throwing of oneself into all kinds of 
unnatural attitudes, nor the assumption of 
stiff and unnatural poses. The gestures 
themselves should be simple. The voice, the 

[158] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


face, the bodily movement, and the lines 
should be a unit, all telling the same story. 

Understanding of Character—It is ex- 
tremely important for the actor to under- 
stand his character. “The player’s part is to 
fathom the depths of character, to trace its 
latent motives, to feel its finest quiverings of 
emotions, to comprehend the thoughts that are 
hidden under the words, and thus to possess 
one’s self with the actual mind of the individ- 
ual mind.” * This is important in order that 
each gesture, tone of voice, mannerism, may 
be typical of the character represented. This 
must all be the result of intelligent study. 
“It is necessary that the actor should learn 
to think before he speaks. . . . Let him re- 
member, first, that every sentence expresses a 
new thought, and therefore frequently de- 
mands a change of intonation; secondly, that 
the thought precedes the word.” ® 

Effect of Action—Movement from one 
stage picture to another will not be so difficult 


4 Macready, quoted by Henry Irving in The Drama, p. 54. 
5 Ibid., p. 83. 
[159] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


if the player understands the various incidents 
and his relationship to them. He must under- 
stand why he crosses or goes up or down the 
stage. No movement should be made except 
that required by the play’s action. Each 
movement has a twofold effect. First, it has 
an important effect on the composition of the 
stage picture. The player’s part in the pic- 
ture must be sustained with unflagging devo- 
tion. He must really and truly listen to what 
the others are saying and support them by 
responding to their action and speeches. He 
must sense and feel his part before he speaks. 
This means that he will assume the mental and 
physical attitude of his character before he 
speaks. Second, each action is taken by the 
audience as having a meaning connected with 
the player and revealing character. For this 
reason, each gesture, each position, should be 
carefully thought out. 

Stage Conventions—It is impossible to 
anticipate all action of every play, but the 

[160] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


following conventionalities should always be 
observed: 

1. If the player is standing obliquely to an 
audience, the up-stage foot is the one to be 
advanced. 

2. On entering, let the up-stage foot take 
the first step. 

3. Kneel on the down-stage knee. If 
kneeling on both knees, let the up-stage knee 
drop last. 

4. The stage embrace is a delicate action. 
If the two persons are standing center, the 
profile should be turned to the audience. The 
man slips his down-stage arm under the girl’s, 
while her down-stage arm _ encircles his 
shoulder. ‘The man’s up-stage arm (on the 
side away from audience) is placed outside the 
girl’s. It is with the up-stage arm he draws 
her to him. 

E'mphasis—Action is built around some 
central happening, such as a speech, or the 
handling of an object, such as a fan or a letter. 

[161] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


In a very brief time, or in a brief bit of move- 
ment, or in a brief speech, resides the whole 
point of the incident. To this focus of in- 
terest, the attention of the audience must be 
called and there fixed. Suppose that a sig- 
nificant letter is to be handed to another. It 
is lying on the table at the player’s right and 
is to be handed to a person on his left. If 
the player were to pick up the letter with the 
right hand and extend the right hand to the 
person on his left, half turning the body as he 
did it, the movement would not only be awk- 
ward, but it would take by far too short a time 
and would tend to hide the actor’s face from 
the audience at the moment when interest is 
awake. If, however, he were to pick up the 
letter with his right hand, transfer it to the 
left, and then extend the left hand, he would 
make a much more significant play. Again, 
action during the speaking of lines may help 
to focus attention on an important speech, if 
skilfully employed. 
[162] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


GROUPING 


Value and Importance of Characters.— 
Whatever a stage may hold of interest, it must 
be subordinated to the really important action. 
That action must have the interest derived 
from being conspicuous. ‘This may be done 
by isolation, the participants in this con- 
spicuous action being separated from others. 
Usually care should be taken to maintain 
balance on the stage. At times, however, one 
may disregard this principle. Thus, if one 
or two be opposing a group, it is entirely per- 
missible, for dramatic emphasis, to have the 
one or two characters occupy one side of the 
stage and the group the other. Good ex- 
amples are the mob scene in Pollock’s Fool 
and the court scene in The Merchant of Venice. 
All important incidents should be played in 
the foreground, not exactly in the center but 
near the center. Amateurs have a tendency 
to play too far back on the stage. 

[163] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Relationship of Characters to the Focus of 
Interest—The various groups or characters 
should not only be in harmonious relationship 
to each other, but, by their position on the 
stage, should help determine their value and 
importance to the principal characters and 
action. The scene should not be encumbered 
with meaningless characters or groups or with 
movements that do not contribute to the scene 
as a whole, but should be so harmonized and 
related as to give unity. The persons of the 
play must be impressed with the fact that they 
are a part of the stage picture from the mo- 
ment they enter the stage until they leave it. 
Each stage picture must be viewed as a single 
composition to be comprehended in its entirety. 
The several characters or groups must be 
linked together by pictorial lines leading to 
the one central focus of interest to which every- 
thing else on the stage contributes. All these 
lines originate and arrive at a common point 
of interest. 

Proportion and Balance.—W here each char- 

[164 | 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


acter or group is to be placed on the stage de- 
pends upon the relation to the center of 
interest. The characters or groups must be 
so disposed that there will be a sense of bal- 
ance. Except for dramatic emphasis wide 
gaps should not appear lest the attention of 
the spectators be drawn toward these gaps 
rather than to the focus of interest. All must 
be done so harmoniously and naturally that 
the audience will never question how it is done. 
The task of the actor is to create the illusion 
that what he is doing is being done for the first 
time. 

Color.—Color considerations will be dis- 
cussed in the following chapter. 


SPEAKING LINES 


Common Faults of Amateurs—There are 
certain faults that amateurs usually have 
which are easily remedied, such as faulty ar- 
ticulation, resulting from indistinctness of 


pronunciation, failure to produce the voice 
[165] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


with consequent carrying power. Usually 
the director may appeal to pride by suggesting 
how awkward the action will appear without 
accompanying words and how delighted the 
approval of the audience will be if it is able to 
hear clearly and distinctly. 

T'empo.—The average line is spoken more 
slowly than in average conversation. ‘There is 
a tendency on the part of amateurs to speak 
rapidly, to hurry through their lines, either 
because of nervousness or self-consciousness, 
or it may be because of a desire to hurry 
through the lines before they are forgotten. 
These same reasons will cause them to look 
down while they are speaking, thus preventing 
their lines from being heard. During rehears- 
als, the players must be made to take a slower 
tempo than they habitually use and to speak 
distinctly. 

Articulation.—On the other hand, shouting 
the lines will not make them carry; it only 
makes faulty articulation more pronounced. 
Here is an opportunity to do some real labora- 

[166] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


tory work by showing that only by giving 
proper attention to the true sounds of vowels 
and consonants may the words be made to con- 
vey the meaning intended. To have clear 
articulation demands attention to several de- 
tails. very word should be slightly accented. 
The thought of every sentence and speech 
should be made dominant and clear. Proper 
emphasis on the important word should mark 
each phrase. Pauses should not be for the 
purpose of getting one’s breath but should be 
appropriate to the sense. Above all, the 
player should speak naturally, with a full ap- 
preciation of the meaning of his lines and not 
recite them as if they were a memorized speech. 

Each player must be made to feel that he is 
a part of the whole, that his task is not to make 
a good impression on the audience. These 
conceited mannerisms put the player out of 
harmony with the scene. As Hamlet re- 
marked, this “shows a most pitiful ambition 
in the fool that uses it.” This is one of the im- 
portant educational values for the player, that 

[167] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


he must learn not to be the whole but a part 
of the whole. The lead would be helpless if 
it were not for the minor parts to create the 
situation. 


Moop AND MovEMENT 


It is necessary to observe the gradations 
which the changes of thought in the lines 
imply. Scenes should not be played on one 
emotional level throughout, but there must be 
a reserve of strength and power for a climax of 
emotion. Every subdivision of the play, act, 
and scene, must be taken at a certain pace, 
time, and cadence which is constantly chang- 
ing. Scenes which tell the play’s story, which 
depict a crisis of character, which are full of 
suspense, or express deeply stirring emotions, 
love scenes of delicate sentiments—all should 
be played slowly. Scenes in which there are 
bustle and confusion, in which things are hap- 
pening, scenes depicting activity and life— 
these should take a quicker tempo. 

[168 ] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


Change of mode must also be indicated. If 
a character is acted at full pitch throughout, 
there will be no light and shade, no contrast, 
and the result will be monotony. ‘The imag- 
ination must be stimulated to make those 
participating feel and realize the scene. ‘The 
players will not escape from self-consciousness 
unless feeling and understanding are the basis 
for playing the part. ‘They must visualize the 
scene, and, once they have done that, they can 
be led to give surprisingly spirited and well 
varied series of interpretations. It is not so 
much a problem of coaching them how to act 
as of stimulating their imaginations and assist- 
ing them to visualize. 


MAKING THE PRODUCTION A Unit 


Often amateurs feel that after they have 
spoken their lines, they may fall back and feel 
they are no longer a part of the stage picture. 
They must be led to feel that the instant they 
appear on the stage they lose their own iden- 

[169] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


tity and must be the character both in their 
speeches and in their responses to others. ‘The 
player follows the words of the others with in- 
telligence. Thus he directs attention to the 
speaker and assists with his by-play to give 
understanding to the speaker’s lines. The 
task is to select and combine the details of each 
scene in harmonious relationship to one an- 
other; to select and unite whatever is most es- 
sential, most interesting, and of the greatest 
consequence for the carrying forward of the 
action; to impress upon each participant, down 
to the least conspicuous member of every 
group, that he is the character he represents 
from the moment he enters upon the stage un- 
til he leaves it, that his personality is rigidly 
subordinated to the requirements of the central 
focus of interest to which everything on the 
stage contributes. 

Welding together the cast for each episode 
and welding the episodes into a complete whole 
is an art. This can only be brought about 
when each participant is taught the art of play- 

[170] 


TECHNIQUE-REHEARSALS 


ing up to his fellows. “All the members of the 
cast should work toward a common end, with 
the subordination of their individuality to the 
general purpose. Without this method a play 
when acted is at best a disjointed and inco- 
herent piece of work, instead of being a har- 
monious whole like the performance of an 


orchestral symphony.” ° 


BIsBLioGRAPHY 


Clark, Barrett H., How to Produce Amateur Plays, 
Little, Brown & Co., 1917. 

Taylor, Morrison, Practical Stage Directions for Ama- 
teurs, E. P. Dutton & Co. 

Stratton, Clarence, Producing in Little Theatres, Henry 
Holt & Co. 


6 Irving, Henry, The Drama, p. 83. 


[171] 


CHAPTER VIII 
TECHNIQUE OF PRODUCTION (Continued) 


THe UsE oF COLoR IN PICTORIAL EFFECTS 


It is a well known fact that the use of color 
plays an important part in play production. 
A great deal of beauty in presentation of plays 
is dependent upon the pictorial element. Dif- 
ferent episodes in the plays are intended to 
form compositions in color that will make as 
definite and lasting impression as the words. 
Indeed, the pictorial elements enter so largely 
into the conception of plays that it is impossi- 
ble to consider their presentation apart from 
it. 

The Elementary Principle Underlying the 
Theory of Color—Certain elementary princi- 
ples underlying the theory of color grouping 
must be recognized in play production. The 

[172] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


spectrum is a combination of colors found in a 
single ray of light. Hue is the quality of 
color which determines its name. A full or 
high color is one in the same state in which it 
is found in the spectrum. If the color is 
darker than the corresponding one in the 
spectrum, it is termed a shade. If a full color 
is made lighter, it is called a tint. Colors 
are divided into two divisions: the primary 
colors are the three colors of the spectrum 
from which all the other colors are made 
—red, yellow, and blue; the secondary colors 
are three other prominent colors of the spec- 
trum which are made from dual combina- 
tions. Colors on the right of the chart are the 
warm colors, orange being the warmest.’ 
(See color chart p. 274.) The colors on the 
left are the cold colors, blue being the coldest 
of the primaries, orange, violet, green. The 
complementary colors are those which mixed 
together produce white. In making color 
grouping it should be remembered that a color 

1 Henderson, Adam’s Dream and Other Miracle Plays, In- 


troduction. 
[173] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


is never absolutely self-contained but is always 
more or less modified by its neighbor or neigh- 
bors. Colors may be heightened or brightened 
or subdued by proximity to others. Comple- 
mentary colors enhance each other’s brilliancy 
and may always be placed side by side. This 
will make possible the following combinations: 
red and bluish green, orange and pale blue; 
yellow and blue (indigo) ; yellowish green and 
violet; and green and purple. 

A color and its complement may be found 
by drawing a line through the center of the 
circle of the color chart anywhere in the circle. 
The triple combination may be found by draw- 
ing an equilateral triangle in the color chart. 
The colors at the angles of the triangle will 
make a triad or triple combination. They are 
orange, green, and purple; red, yellow, and 
blue; ete. Analogous harmony is that pro- 
duced by placing a color with its adjacent 
color in the spectrum. There are, then, three 
types of scientific harmony: the complemen- 
tary, the triad, and the adjacent. (See color 

[174] | 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


chart, p. 274.) Each of these types may be 
made the basis for color grouping. 

It must be remembered that lights affect 
colors. The following table will be found use- 
ful in determining color grouping when arti- 
ficial lighting is necessary: 

Red light on black produces a _ purplish 
black; on red, deepens the color; on orange, 
produces red orange; on green, produces dif- 
ferent effects according to the tones of the 
green—if the green is a dark shade, it pro- 
duces a red black, and if a light tint, a reddish 
gray; on blue, violet; and on violet, deep 
purple. 

Orange light on black yields a deep brown; 
on red, scarlet; on yellow, yellow orange; on 
green, if it is a dark shade, a rusty green,—if 
it is a hight tint, a yellow green; on blue, an 
orange gray, if the blue is light, a dull gray,— 
if it is a deep blue; on indigo, a dark brown; 
on violet, a red brown. 

Yellow light on black gives a yellow olive; 
on red, orange; on orange, yellow orange; on 

[175] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


green, yellow green; on blue, yellow blue, if the 
blue is light,—green slate, if the blue is deep; 
on indigo, orange yellow; on violet, yellow 
brown. 

Green light on black makes a green brown; 
on orange, a faint yellow with a green tinge; 
on yellow, brilliant yellow green; on blue, 
green, intense or the reverse according to the 
tint or shade of the blue; on indigo, dull green; 
on violet, bluish green brown. 

Blue light on black gives a blue black; on 
red, violet; on orange, brown with a pale tint 
of violet; on yellow, green; on green, blue 
green; on indigo, deep blue indigo; and on 
violet, dark blue violet. 

Violet light on black yields black with a 
faint violet tinge; on red, red violet purple; on 
orange, light red; on yellow, brown with a pale 
tint of red; on green, light purple; on blue, 
clear blue violet; and on indigo, deep indigo 
violet.” 


2Chevrene, M. Z., The Principles of Harmony and Con- 
trast of Colors, translated by Charles Martel, third edition, 


1859. 
[176] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


The use of color should be purposeful and 
symbolic, never for mere esthetic effect. The 
following table may be of value.* 


SyMBOLISM or CoLoR 


Ecclesiastical and Other Significations 


Constructive Color Destructive 
Ecclesiastical Red Ecclesiastical 
Love Blood 
Enthusiasm Fire 
Hoty Spirit Martyrdom 
Creative power Hatred 
Royalty Punishment 
Other Other 
Health Danger 
Warmth Passion 
Bravery Shame 
Patriotism Falsehood 
Strength Evil spirits 
Beauty Restlessness 
Excitement 

Yellow 
Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical 
Sun Jealousy 
Splendor Deceit 


3This table was worked out by a class in costuming in 
the Boston University School of Religious Education, of 
which the writer was a member; Miss Lois Bailey, instructor. 


[177] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Constructive Color Destructive 


Ecclesiastical Yellow Ecclesiastical 


Goodness of God Shame 
Wisdom of God Treachery 
Marriage 

Truthfulness 


Power 
Halo 


Other Other 


Gaiety Gaudiness 
Royalty Sensationalism 
Light Indecency 
‘Harvest Decay 
Warmth 

Aurora 

Fame 

Power 


Orange 
Ecclesiastical Ecclesiastical 


(Similar to yellow) 
Warmth 

Cheer 

Hospitality 
Benevolence 

Flame 

Marriage 

Harvest 


[178] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


Constructive 


Ecclesiastical 


Fertility 
Hope 

Life 
Immortality 
Victory 


Other 


Memory 
Spring 
Youth 

Sea 

Vigor 

Life 
Plenty 
Peace 
Prosperity 


Ecclesiastical 


Heaven 
Sky 
Truth 
Fidelity 
Peace 
Piety 
Justice 
Sincerity 


Color Destructive 
Green Ecclesiastical 
Other 
Envy 
Inexperience 
Blue 
Ecclesiastical 


[179] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Constructive 
Ecclesiastical 


Other 


‘Conscience 

Dignity 

Intelligence 
Aristocracy 

Poetry 

Minerva 

Blue-eyed Athena 
Blue mantle—Diana 
Blue and silver rose 


Ecclesiastical 


Penitence 


Other 


Friendship 
Thoughts 


Ecclesiastical 


Royalty 
Martyrdom 
Loyalty 

Love of truth 
Dignity of justice 


Color 
Blue 


Violet 


Purple 


[180] 


Destructive 
Ecclesiastical 


Other 


(Dark dull blue) 
Mystery 

Gloom 

Night 

Evil imagination 
Storm 

Thunder 

Gold 


Ecclesiastical 


Suffering 


Passion 


Other 


Dejection 


Shadow 


Ecclesiastical 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


Constructive Color 
Ecclesiastical Purple 
Other 

Wine 


Jupiter's royal robe 


White 
Ecclesiastical 
Light 
Purity 
Innocence 
Virginity 
Joy 
Triumph 
Faith 
Other 


Delicacy 

Femininity 

Integrity 

Manhood 

White flag of surrender 
White shield of untried 


Gray 


Ecclesiastical 


‘Humility 


[181] 


Destructive 


Ecclesiastical 
Other 


State of mourning 
Shadows 

Enmity 

Inactivity 


Ecclesiastical 


Other 

White feather of 
timidity 

Mourning 


Ghosts 


Ecclesiastical 


Sorrow 
Tribulation 
Self-renunciation 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Constructive 


Ecclesiastical 


Other 


Color 
Gray 


Age, mature judgment 


Quietude 
Distance 
Simplicity 


Ecclesiastical 


Other 


Night 
Peace 


Solitude 


Color—The problem of costumes is one of 
color, material, and historic and symbolic ac- 
curacy. It is necessary to have an under- 


Black 


CostTUMES 


Destructive 
Ecclesiastical 


Other 


Dreariness 
Storm 


Twilight 


Ecclesiastical 
Mourning 
Wickedness 
Death 


Other 


Black art 
Witchcraft 
Despair 
Harlot 


Ignorance 


standing and an appreciation of color. 


colors must blend successfully one with an- 


[182] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


other that all unpleasant shocks to the eye 
may be avoided. ... The costumes of the 
supernumeraries should not nullify those of 
the important characters. All the tints and 
shades should harmonize with the setting— 
and the colors be so chosen that artificial light 
will neither cause discord nor deaden the ef- 
Pech. 

Color considerations in costuming are: 

1. The general character of the scene as a 
whole and the central emotion to be aroused. 
The designer of costumes should read the play 
or pageant very carefully to determine the 
emotions to be aroused, the relative impor- 
tance of the characters, and the nature of 
each. If there are elements of joy and 
gaiety to be presented, brilliant light colors 
such as apple green, Nile green, cerise, 
magenta, yellow orange, pale yellow, vivid 
red may be used. If the play presents a 
struggle, somber colors should be used to cre- 
ate a proper atmospheric setting. If a theme 


4Pougin, Dictionaire du Thédtre (under “Costumes”). 


[183] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


of spiritual significance is being presented, 
such colors as blues, greens, violets, and laven- 
ders should be used. ‘Tones of cool colors 
have a distinctly calming effect, while warm 
colors are more obtruding and _ exciting. 
When a rich color scheme is desired, such 
colors as maroon, gold, purple, blue, silver, 
deep green, and golden brown may be used. 
It should always be borne in mind that the pur- 
pose is to arouse emotions for a brief length 
of time. A stage picture in color effect may 
present a variety of emotions. 

2. The necessity of satisfying the eye and 
keeping prolonged attention by medium inten- 
sity of color in the picture as a whole. It 
must be borne in mind that in any given 
scene too much intensity of color wearies; 
therefore, settings and costumes in a long act 
should be more quiet. Also, the larger the 
area the more somber the color should be, and, 
vice versa, the smaller the area, the brighter 
the color. 

8. Correct dramatic emphasis by means of 

[184] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


color in costume both in the stage picture and 
in individual costumes. Who can imagine a 
Hamlet in a flaming red or a Falstaff in som- 
ber gray? The personality of the character 
must be interpreted by costuming. To do 
this, there must be some conception of the in- 
dividual characteristics of the character to be 
expressed through his clothes. Other cos- 
tumes must support those of the “stars” to 
make them stand out, and should vary in ob- 
trusion according to their relative importance. 
The colors used for the various characters 
should be considered in relation to their vary- 
ing importance. A minor character should 
never be costumed in a way that would give 
him more importance than is due him or that 
would eclipse a more important character. 

4. Historical accuracy, appropriate sym- 
bolism being employed in individual cos- 
tumes. In choosing colors for costumes for 
a certain period and race, one should seek to 
discover what colors predominated during that 
period. Certain colors have been very popu- 

[185] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


lar with certain peoples and in given periods, 
while others have been unpopular and have 
even had a vile meaning. 

We have already discussed the symbolism of 
color. If a character has been costumed in a 
color symbolically, that same shade of color 
should not appear elsewhere in the scene. 
For instance, if red is used to costume a sym- 
bolic character representing love, no other 
character should wear that shade of red. The 
skilful use of color to isolate a character 
against a mass is very effective and may be 
used extensively especially in pageant pro- 
duction. 

5. Artistic massing, the position and bal- 
ance of color in the scene as a whole, pleas- 
ing color combinations in costumes as they 
stand in proximity to one another and within 
individual costumes. For purposes of em- 
phasizing individual characters, luminosity 
against a neutral background or black helps to 
set forth a character. 

Material—The choice of material depends 

[186] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


upon character and historical setting. It is 
not always necessary to use the actual material 
worn in a given period. But in the use of sub- 
stitutes care must be taken that the substitute 
material shall fall in the same general lines and 
take the same lights as the original; and the 
general character as to textile qualities— 
weave, weight, and surface—must be similar. 
The decoration of the cloth is also important 
because in certain periods and with certain 
races the decorations on fabrics have been sig- 
nificant and have expressed their characteristic 
taste in color and design. For instance, 
stripes were characteristic of the Arabs, the 
Egyptians, and the Romans. The Greeks 
made use of the border. Flower brocades 
were characteristic of Queen Elizabeth’s time. 

Historical Accuracy.—Historical accuracy 
brings satisfaction and zest to all and adds 
real charm as well as real educational value. 
Care should be taken not to introduce some 
modern detail in ancient costume. “We are 
realizing that a play written on one mood and 

[187] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


presented in another, music, scenery, and cos- 
tumes in yet another, is chaos and not art.” ® 
A good costume book is important.® Stand- 
ard dictionaries are very helpful. The Tis- 
sot pictures are very accurate both as to color 
and line. It is not our purpose to go into 
detail as to actual construction of costumes in 
different periods but only to name some of the 
periods and to give a few outstanding charac- 
teristics of each. The chief emphasis here 
will be upon those costumes used in biblical 


and missionary productions. 


BIBLICAL 


Biblical costumes in earliest biblical times 
would be Egyptian. Joseph and Moses lived 
during the eighteenth and nineteenth dynas- 
ties. The colors used by the early Egyptians 
were red (vermilion, terra-cotta, Venetian, 
orange red), blue (turquoise, blue green), 
green (yellow green). Black and _ green 


5 Mackay, Costumes and Scenery for Amateurs, p. 7. 
6 Grimball and Wells, Costuming a Play. 


[188] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


were sometimes used. A great many cos- 
tumes were entirely of black and white. The 
materials were cotton, linen, and wool. Men 
stained their bodies; women rouged lips and 
cheeks. Many ornaments were worn, such as 
beaded collars, lower and upper arm brace- 
lets, and ear-rings. (See illustration, p. 275- 
6.) The following are typical characters with 
their representative costumes: 


I. PHARAOH (see p. 276). 
A. Head-dress. 
1. Crown, white inside. 
2. Royal head-dress, red and white 
striped material. 
3. Helmet. 
B. Garments. 
1. Loin-cloth. 
2. Skirt, white, reaching to knees. 
3. Royal apron. 
4, Long straight transparent robe of 
cloth. 
5. Broad beaded collar. 
[189] 


Sle 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


6. Upper and lower arm bracelets. 
Sandals. 

Emblems. 

1. Scepter. 

2. Hook. 

3. Scourge. 


II. JosEpuH (see p. 276). 


A. 


sae 


Head-dress. 

1. Head shaved. 

2. Straight black wig covering ears. 

8. Crown in general style like Phar- 
aoh’s. 

Garments. 

1. Narrow straight white skirt reach- 
ing to ankles. 

2. Collar. 

8. (As official) Short white skirt 
with royal apron. 

4, Official beard. 

Feet bare or sandals. 

Insignia. 

Battle-ax or fan. 

[190] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


III. An Orrician (PoTipHaR) (see p. 


276). 


A. Head-dress. 


B. 


Like Joseph. 

Garments. 

1. Short foundation skirt, white, 
short in front reaching to ankles 
in back. 

2. Sash tied in front, ends hanging 
to knees. 

3. Broad collar about neck a little 
less ornate than Pharaoh’s. 


IV. Priest (see p. 276). 
A. Head-dress. 


B. 


C. 


Head and face shaved. 

Garments. 

1. Loin-cloth foundation. 

2. Long white skirt. 

3. Panther or leopard skin thrown 
over shoulder covering breast 
and part of back. 

Feet bare or plain sandals, 

[191] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


V. Servants, (BuTLER, BAKER, ScRIBE, 


“Ee 


F‘AN-BEARER). 
A. 


Head-dress. 

Black natural hair cut to base in 
back. 

Garments. 

1. Kilt of coarse, heavy, white cloth. 

2. Straight piece of white material 
wrapped rather loosely around 
hips, or skirt of cut leather 
slashed so finely as to resemble 
net. 

Feet bare. 

Insignia. 


1. Scribe carries reed pen, scroll, yel- 
low. in color. He sits on the 
floor. 

2. Fan-bearer carries large paper 
fan on long pole. 


VI. SoLprers. 


A. 


B. 


Head-dress. 
Head bound in striped material. 
Garments. 

[192] 


0 © 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


1. Short white skirt. 

2. Three-cornered apron. 
3. Heavy sash. 

Feet bare. 

Implements of warfare. 
1. Dagger worn in sash. 
2. Long spear. 

3. Shield. 


VII. Orricta.’s WIFE (see p. 275). 
A. WHead-dress. 


B. 


Long wig braided in tresses. 

Garments. 

1. Close-fitting garment with close- 
fitting sleeves. 

2. Long narrow sash wrapped first 
above the waist, then around 
the waist with long stream- 
ers. 

3. Long semitransparent mantle, 
fastened in front under collar, 
reaching to hips and longer in 
back. 

4, Beaded collar and ear-rings. 

[193] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


VIII. Marps (SuaveEs) see p. 275). 
A. Head-dress. 

1. Hair similar to that of lady of 
rank. 

2. Plain white head-band. — 

B. Garments. 

Long, tight dress, medium heavy 
white or light brown, wrapped 
about the body from arm-pits 
down. 


C. Feet bare. 


There was no marked change in costume in 
Palestine until after the period of bondage. 
Then the outer garments were made of goat’s 
and camel’s hair, sheep’s skin, woolen and 
linen cloth. Silk was worn in Babylon in 
Ezekiel’s time and was later imported to 
Palestine. 'The colors were indigo, blue, sev- 
eral shades of red, brown, vivid green and 
purple. Purple was the royal color. The 

[194] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


following are suggestions for costuming char- 
acters representative of this period.’ 


I. RicH LANDOWNER (such as Boaz). 
A. Head-dress. 

1. Turban, striped or embroidered 
material wrapped around the 
head. 

2. Veil used partly as head-dress and 
partly as mantle. 

B. Garments. 

1. White undergarment. 

2. Long tunic, sleeves flaring 
slightly, of fine striped material 

| or plain white. 

3. Sash, broad striped material 
wrapped around waist, end not 
showing. 

7The Tissot pictures are very accurate in both cut and 
color, and they represent both Old and New Testament times. 
Reproductions, in color, may be procured at the rate of one 


and one half cents each, of the New York Sunday School 
Commission, 416 Lafayette Street, New York. 


[195] 


C. 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


4. Over-tunic made of some rich ma- 
terial reaching to ankles. 
Sandals. 


II. SHEPHERDS. 


A. 


See 


Head-dress. 

1. One’ yard square cloth, striped 
material held with coils. 

Garments. 

1. Short tunic of coarse cloth to 
knees; sash. 

2. Mantle or cloak made of sheep- 
skin. 

Feet bare. 

Insignia. 

1. Rod, a heavy club with metal 
piece driven in end. 

2. Staff, a long stick. 

3. Sling. 


III. PrEAsant. 
A. Head-dress. 


B. 


1. Turban or like shepherds’. 
Garments. 
[196] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


1. Tunic like rich man’s but not of 
such fine material. 

2. Usually no outer tunic; if so, it is 
plain, no sleeves. 

C. Feet bare or sandals. 
IV. Common Priests. 
A. Head-dress. 
1. White turban. 
B. Garments. 

1. White linen tunic to ankles, tight 
sleeves. 

2. Embroidered sash three inches 
wide and eight yards long, 
wound four times around waist 
and hips, crossed, carried over 
each shoulder and tied at waist 
in center front. 

V. HicH Priest. 
A. Head-dress. 

1. Turban, peaked in front, gold 
plate, inscribed, “Holy unto 
Jehovah.” 

[197] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


B. Garments. 

1. White linen under tunic to ankles. 

2. Over above a sleeveless purple 
tunic, on the bottom of which is 
a fringe of small golden bells 
and pomegranates. 

3. Ephod, in middle of which is a 
breastplate, tied over shoulder- 
disk, twelve jewels in rows. 

4. Two panels, little below the waist, 
rich materials, blue, gold, crim- 
son, or purple. 

5. Girdle of precious material, three 
inches wide, wrapped around 
waist, one end hanging nearly 
to bottom of tunic. 

6. Short cape fastened to.shoulders. 

VI. Women. 
A. Head-dress. 

1. Veil, draped about the head, 
either of same material of 
border design of dress or of 
contrasting colors. 

[198] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


B. Garments. 

1. Long embroidered dress of linen, 
sleeves, skirt narrow for peasant 
class and wide for rich. Em- 
broidery prominent in yoke, up 
side seams, and on sleeves. 

2. Sash of contrasting material 
striped or embroidered. 

C. Sandals. 


All warriors wore light armor. They had 
the same equipment as earlier soldiers with the 
addition of a leather girdle, a small helmet of 
leather, and a small shield. After David’s 
time they had a large shield, a breastplate, and 
a coat of mail. At first only captains wore 
helmets; later all wore them. Kings wore 
higher helmets. 


GRECIAN 


MATERIALS: silks, woolen, linen, leather. 
Cotors: red, purple, frog green, black, white, 
yellow (for women only). 
[199] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


GARMENTS: 

Tunic, nearly always bordered designs. 
In early times besides borders, there were all- 
over designs; in later times this was considered 
poor taste. The designs were woven, em- 
broidered or painted on cloth. Even the gar- 
ments of laboring-men had some designs. 
Young people dressed more gaudily than older 
people. During the Homeric age there was 
great richness of fabric of yellow and gold. 
In these times quality and rarity of cloth dis- 
tinguished ladies of rank. 

Men wore long hair bound by a fillet. The 
two principal garments were the tunic and the 
cloak. ‘The tunic came down to the thighs, in 
older men to the ankles. It was made of 
linen. Over the tunic was worn the cloak 
made of a square piece of cloth. Soldiers 
wore metal breastplates and bronze helmets 
and carried long staffs. 

Women wore linen peplos, with or without 
girdle, fastened over the shoulders with 
brooches. Their cloak was often spoken of 

[200] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


as a veil. It was made of very fine semi- 
transparent material. For their head-dress 
they wore a diadem made of metal, a kerchief 
over the top, and over all a veil. Har-rings 
and necklaces and fancy brooches were their 
ornaments. ‘The costumes of Greek women 
and girls were either yellow, crimson, blue, or 
green, ornamented with borders. 


ANCIENT ROMAN 


The tunic is the basis of the Roman costume 
for boys and men. Young men and soldiers 
wore the tunic to the knees. Older men, 
nobles, and lawgivers wore the tunic to the 
ankles. Over this tunic was worn a toga or 
cloak, a national garment worn only by the 
Romans. It was fastened on the left shoulder, 
and then drawn about the body. It was made 
of wool—white for the common people, purple 
for emperors and generals. Purple was the 
color for the Czsars. The purple of the an- 
cients was a Phoenician dye more like scarlet 
than the modern purple. 

[201] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


The soldiers wore the short white tunic with 
upper body armor, a breastplate and helmet, 
and carried a round shield. Over the skirt of 
the tunic hung from the armor at the waist 
were strips of leather. The Roman women 
dressed much as the Grecian did. 


JAPANESE 


The spirit of Japan is exceedingly refined. 
The Japanese have an appreciation of the 
beautiful. Their costumes for street wear are 
quiet. Men wear darker costumes than 
women. ‘The children’s costumes are bright 
and cheerful. 

The women for indoor wear have kimonos 
of material with gay figured designs such as 
butterflies, birds, and blossoms. The more re- 
fined have seals in center of back and on 
sleeves. The kimono is long with box-sleeves 
and a surplice vest, sash or kobi three yards 
long and twelve inches wide, tied around 
waist and in a bow at back, the tip of the bow 

[202] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


coming up to the shoulders. The kobi is of 
gayer color than the kimono. Women do not 
wear shoes in the house. Men dress some- 
what like women, but in quieter colors. Their 
sash is of the same material as the kimono 
and is wrapped around the waist, the ends 
tucked in at the back. ‘They also wear short, 
open coats with large flowing sleeves. The 
hair is cut close. Field laborers wear large 
round hats and shorter kimonos. (See bib- 
liography for sources of information.) 


CHINESE 


The predominating colors of China are blue 
with black trimmings and yellow for the im- 
perial family. The women wear ordinary 
straight ‘trousers with medium flare at ankles 
and coat reaching to thighs. The coat may 
fasten at the neck, over the chest, under the 
right arm, or all the way straight down the 
front. The trimmings on the divided skirt 
and coat must be alike, but the cloth may dif- 
fer. ‘The men wear trousers like women, of 

[203] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


the same general cut, made of plain material. 
Their coats extend to the thighs. Profes- 
sional men wear longer coats. All men wear 
skulleaps and round straw hats. (See bib- 


liography. ) 
INDIAN 


The predominating colors of India are 
orange, purple, crimson, green, brown, black, 
and white. Ornaments are worn very freely. 
These include ear-rings, anklets, many little 
rings with one large one in the ears, toe-rings, 
finger-rings and many bracelets. The sari 
is the main garment for women. It requires 
six yards of material one yard wide, or long 
enough to reach to the ankles. Widows wear 
pure white; others, colored material with a 
border. 


Tl. Hirypu Women 


Sari: Six yards long, one yard wide, or 
long enough to reach to ankles. Widows 
wore pure white; others wore colors, with a 

[204] 


TECHNIQUE-COSTUMING 


border, sometimes with all-over geometrical de- 
sign. Directions for dressing another person: 
Hold one end of cloth in left hand, place on 
person’s left hip, bring tightly around hips to 
meet front edge at right hip. At this point 
is where the upper edges should be firmly tied 
and tucked in. The long end should be laid 
in plaits to within three or four yards of end. 
Tuck this plaiting in about the waist in front. 
Pass the loose end of cloth over left hip, across 
the back, up under right arm, across front, 
over the left shoulder, bring it around over the 
right shoulder where the end is left hanging 
loose, or it may be pinned over the chest. 
The loose end may be brought over the head 
to form head-dress if desired. An ordinary 
plain white waist with short sleeves under sari, 
or plain colored cloth. 
Sandals only in the house. 


Il. Hinnou Men. 


Head-dress, large white turban. Some- 
times turbans are red. An ordinary plain 
[205] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


white waist with short sleeves is worn under 
the sari. Trousers cut full at the top and 
tight below the knees. 

It should be remembered that all the dif- 
ferent castes of India have different costumes. 
The Mohammedan women wear, in addition, 
the perdi, which is a round cap witha veil. In 
India the perdi is always white; in Africa, 
black and white or dark blue; in Turkey, 
black with a white veil. The higher the so- 
cial rank the more transparent the veil. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Batchelder, Ernest A., Design in Theory and Practice, 
Macmillan Co., 1910. 

Grimball and Wells, Costuming a Play, Century Co., 
1924, 


[206] 


CHAPTER IX 
EQUIPMENT 1 


It is becoming a quite common practice to 
build community or parish houses so designed 
as to provide facilities for all the social and 
recreational interests of the community it is 
to serve. More and more these will contain 
auditoriums with stages. To forestall some 
common errors the following suggestions are 
given together with sources of expert informa- 
tion. 

The aim is to provide a home for the dra- 
matic impulse of the community—not a make- 
shift, but one worthy of the fine art of drama, 
with full recognition of the important part 
that dramatic expression is to play in the 
program. 


1In the preparation of this chapter extensive use has been 
made of Moderwell, The Theatre of To-day, and Pichel, On 
Building a Theatre. 


[207] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


THE STAGE 


Purpose.—A_ stage is a place on which a 
dramatic action is to be revealed before an 
audience. Whatever its size or shape, or in 
whatever building it is to be placed, it must 
be built to perform that definite function. 
The players are to be seen and heard. In far 
too many instances schools, colleges, churches, 
and community houses are still being con- 
structed with little or no consideration for the 
important place that dramatics should hold in 
the curriculum and in the church and com- 
munity program. Often the stage provided 
is entirely inadequate to serve its purpose. 

Common Errors.—There are two common 
errors in constructing stages in community and 
parish houses. First, experts in stage build- 
ing are rarely consulted. A good architect 
may know very little about a stage and its 
equipment. Second, the attempt is often 
made to adopt numerous modern devices when 
the stage itself is wholly inadequate, both in 

[208] 


EQUIPMENT 


size and shape, to carry complete modern 
equipment. 

Visibility—An important consideration in 
stage building is visibility. A sight line 
drawn from every seat in the auditorium 
should give a clear view of the entire stage. 
To accomplish this many plans are employed. 
In many modern buildings the auditorium be- 
comes narrower as it approaches the stage. 
Often the back of the stage (up-stage) is nar- 
rower than the front (down-stage). A pro- 
scenium opening almost as wide as the seat- 
ing space assists in making the stage visible. 
An inclined floor aids in assuring direct sight 
lines. Often the stage is elevated unduly to 
overcome the lack of direct sight lines. This 
is not an assistance, but, on the contrary, it 
makes the spectator tilt his head at an un- 
comfortable angle. It also makes the player 
appear abnormally tall; and, as he moves to- 
ward the back of the stage, the lower part of 
his body is concealed. 

Good Acoustics—Until quite recently, the 

[209] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


acoustic properties have been left largely to 
accident. If the acoustics were good, it was 
considered indeed fortunate; if poor, piano 
wires were strung, nets of raw silk were spread, 
or the walls padded. Wallace Sabine has 
demonstrated that it is possible to predict 
with a degree of scientific accuracy the acous- 
tic properties of a structure. He describes 
clearly methods by which the causes of acous- 
tic difficulties may be discovered and over- 
come.” 

Dimensions.—The stage is popularly re- 
garded as the space on which the actors ap- 
pear. As a matter of fact, this space should 
be only a small part of the stage. The stage 
in most theaters is about five times as large as 
the part of it which is visible to the audience. 
The spaces at right and left of the proscenium 
arch should be as large as the space visible 
when the curtain is raised. ‘To be sure, many 
stages are being used successfully that do not 
meet these requirements; but if a stage is be- 


2 American Architect, Dec. 31, 1913. 
[210] 


EQUIPMENT 


ing erected, it is far better to keep them in 
mind. 

The height of the stage from the floor should 
be from three to four feet. Pichel says it 
should be three feet and nine inches.* The 
width of the proscenium opening should be 
about half of the width of the auditorium at 
its widest point, although this proportion may 
be varied somewhat. Considerations of pro- 
duction demand in the ordinary auditorium a 
proscenium opening at least twenty-four feet 
in width. In height the proscenium opening 
should be in proportion to the width, about 
half as high as wide. Thus a proscenium of 
twenty-four feet should be about twelve feet 
high. If a proscenium is too low, it will 
throw human figures out of proportion to their 
surroundings. 

Off-stage room is needed to make for good 
entrances. It also serves for placing scenery 
between acts and for actors to await their en- 
trances. Room can also be used in the loft 


3 Pichel, On Building a Theatre, p. 28. 
[211] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


of the stage and in the space under the stage 
for storing scenery and properties and for 
trap entrances, if needed. 

Hard wood should never be used for stage 
floors. Instead, soft wood, into which pegs 
and nails bite easily, should be used. 


SCENERY 


Purpose.—The purpose of scenery is two- 
fold: first, to furnish a suitable and harmoni- 
ous background of color; second, to suggest 
unerringly, but with no superfluity of detail, 
the character of surrounding in which the ac- 
tion of the play transpires. Scenery is not 
for the purpose of decoration. A set of 
scenery should not be calculated to secure ap- 
plause. It should be so much a matter of ac- 
companiment to the play that the attention 
of the audience is not directed to it, but to 
the matter at hand—the action of the play. 

Scenery is intended to suggest atmosphere 
and create illusion, which does not mean that 

[212] 


EQUIPMENT 


an audience is to mistake a stage for some- 
thing else, but that it shall become so absorbed 
in what it sees on the stage that the world of 
reality ceases to intrude itself. Scenery that 
is too realistic suggests artificiality. The pur- 
pose is to suggest, not to represent. 

The producer should seek to understand the 
author’s idea of a play and seek its correct 


ce 


interpretation, . endeavor to grasp the 
whole, to discover its inner meaning, to reveal 
its unity and purpose, to select the essentials 
and repeat it constantly with fitting variations, 
to suggest rather than to reveal, to work above 
all with imagination and the poetic sense.” * 
A producer may know when his scene pos- 
sesses the correct feeling, but he will not al- 


ways be able to explain how it is done. 


LIGHTING 


Importance—The most vital part of the 
stage machine is lighting. It is the only part 


4Moderwell, The Theatre of To-day, p. 122. 
[213] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


in which any mystery is involved. Certain 
types of visual beauty may be achieved only 
through light. As the artist comes to under- 
stand the profound effect of light on human 
emotions, he more and more regards it as a 
pure medium. 

The light reinforces the mood and mean- 
ings of the play. By its intensity or dimness, 
it gives “atmosphere”; by its color, it has a 
direct psychological effect on the spectator, 
sensitizing him to values in the play he might 
not perceive were it enacted in light of an- 
other sort. 

Purpose.—Light serves five chief purposes. 

1. It illuminates the stage and the actors. 

2. It states the hour, the season, the weather, 
by suggesting natural light effects. 

3. It helps paint the scenes by manipula- 
tion of masses of light and shadow and by 
heightening color values. 

4. It lends relief to actors and to the plastic 
elements of the scene; it makes both seem 
alive. 

[214] 


EQUIPMENT 


5. It helps act the play, by symbolizing its 
meanings and reinforcing its psychology. 

Classes of Stage Lights-——There are two 
classes of stage lights—stationary and _ port- 
able. 

1. Stationary lights are of two kinds. The 
foot-lights are set in a trough in the floor at 
the front edge of the stage. Because foot- 
lights throw a direct light upon the faces of 
the actors, they have, of late, been put under 
ban, and should be seldom used except for il- 
luminating the front curtain. 

Border lights are placed in hanging troughs, 
adjustable in height, throwing their light 
downward. The first (or front) border is 
hung immediately behind the curtain; the 
others are hung at intervals of seven feet from 
center to center. The foot-lights and borders 
are usually wired in three circuits and filled 
with lamps of different colors, white (or am- 
ber), red, and blue. 

2. Movable lights—Movable lights are 
usually of two general types: flood lights, for 

[215] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


general diffused illumination, and lens lights 
(“spot” lights) for concentrated light. Un- 
der the first heading may be classed all special 
lights known as strips, floods, or bunches. 
Strips are small troughs, fitted with from three 
to ten sockets, and are used to light off-stage 
backings. 'Thus they may be used to indicate 
moonlight or sunlight off stage. Flood lights 
have replaced bunches. They burn from 500 
to 1000 watt nitrogen-filled Mazda _ bulbs. 
The hoods of these flood lamps have diverging 
sides and have grooves at the front of the 
hood for carrying color frames. Spot lamps 
are mounted in closed iron hoods, emitting 
light through a lens from one end only. ‘They 
are set on extension standards and can be 
tipped up or down. 

Switchboard.—The switchboard is the ma- 
chinery of control of the lighting system. In 
American theatres it customarily is placed at 
one side of the proscenium arch. In many 
European theatres the operator has his place 

[216] 


EQUIPMENT 


in a pit directly in front of the stage where 
he can watch the action of the play. 

The construction of the switchboard is 
strictly prescribed by fire underwriters. Im- 
portant artistic considerations are: 

1. Each light unit on the stage should be 
subject to control from a vantage point where 
the stage can be seen by the operator. 

2. Each unit should be subject to a separate 
control. 

3. Groups of like units, classed by location 
or color, should be subject to group control, 
apart from other groups. 

The white lights of the first border should 
be controlled by a switch apart from that con- 
trolling the white lights of the second border, 
or third, ete. So likewise for each color cir- 
cuit of each border, separately. 

Then there should be a white border main 
switch, controlling the white lights of all the 
borders, and a blue border main switch, etc. 

Above these should be a main border switch 

[217] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


controlling all the border lights simultaneously, 
and thus with each division of the stage lights. 

4. The stage hight as a whole should be con- 
trollable apart from the house lighting. 

Dimmers.—These are resistance devices by 
which the intensity of the light is controlled. 
There should be a dimmer for each switch on 
the board, controlling each light unit sepa- 
rately, with “master” levers; related light units 
may be controlled simultaneously. 

Color of Lights.——The colored bulbs for the 
border and foot-lights may be readily secured. 
For the color frames to be used on the flood 
hghts and the “spot,” the best color medium 
is a sheet of glass with color blown in. The 
gelatin colors fade under heat and are liable 
to crack while in use. While it is true that an 
amateur can rarely enjoy the privilege of a 
splendid equipment, he should understand the 
modern equipment and seek to improvise 
whenever possible. 

There is a need for dressing rooms and 

[218] 


EQUIPMENT 


wardrobes. The dressing rooms should be 
located conveniently to the stage. The ward- 
robes are for the costumes. Beautiful cos- 
tumes have been ruined by being crammed into 
small, dirty boxes for storage. ‘The wardrobe 
should have large closets with bars for hang- 
ers and should be equipped with shelves and 
drawers. 


THE PORTABLE STAGE 


If one does not have a community or parish 
house, or if the only available auditorium 1s 
used for gymnasium or other purposes, the 
problem arises of providing facilities for dra- 
matic production. Such a problem may be 
solved by the erection of a portable stage. 
During the past year the writer has had 
erected two portable stages, one in a gymna- 
sium, another for use in a college chapel.’ 

The stage itself is built in sections. The 


5 See page 222. 
[219] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


proscenium front is built of light framework 
covered with canvas upon which are painted 
suitable designs. ‘The cyclorama is hung from 
framework. It consists of six drapes, two 
for the back and two for each side. ‘The ma- 
terial used may be canvas, or sateen, of a neu- 
tral color. A good plan is to have the drapes 
lined so that they may be reversed. Tan 
lined with blue is an excellent combination. 
The tan may be used for day scenes and the 
blue for night scenes. ‘The border lights are 
fastened on the framework, and the switch- 
board is a portable one. All of this should be 
so constructed as to permit convenient storage. 


SCREENS 


If there is no possibility of providing either 
a permanent or a portable stage, a set of 
screens may be used. ‘The three-screen set 
may be used as indicated in the diagram be- 
low. 
[220] 


EQUIPMENT 


The use of the five-screen set provides two 
masked entrances on each side instead of the 
one as indicated above. These screens should 
be made in three sections. Each section 
should be forty inches wide and from seven 
to nine feet high and should be covered with 
burlap of neutral color. These screens may 
be set in various ways, and may be used for 
curtains by having two people behind each 
of the two screens to remove them and set 
them at side to mask entrances. 

A lantern may be used for light. Pleasing 
color effects may be secured by the use of 
colored slides. For this purpose slides of the 

[221] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


three primary and of the three secondary colors 
will be needed. 


MAKE-UP 


Need of Make-uwp.—The actor appears at 
a distance from the spectators. His features 
look insignificant and indistinct. The profes- 
sional has, in most cases, well marked and well 
accentuated features. The amateur usually 
has more softly molded features. A slight 
exaggeration of nature is necessitated by stage 
conditions. The actor plays in artificial light, 
which makes his natural complexion appear 
pasty, his features smaller than natural, and 
his eyes sunken. Make-up skilfully used will 
overcome these disadvantages. Make-up is 
needed to make the player look natural when 
acting under unnatural conditions. 

Material Needed.—It is best for every actor 
to have his own make-up box if he has fre- 
quent need for it. In any case, the following 
materials are needed: 

[222] 


EQUIPMENT 


Cold cream. 

Cocoa butter. 

Grease paint in the following colors; blond, | 
flesh, brunette, yellowish, sunburn, ocher, 
white, gray, blue, carmine, crimson. 

Lining pencils. 

Crape hair. 

Spirit gum. 

Powder (white, pink, and brunette). 

Rouge. 

Cheesecloth. 

Powder puff. 

Directions for Use-——Make up before a 
mirror brilliantly lighted. 

Women should cover the hair with a cap. 

Rub face and throat thoroughly but lightly 
with cold cream. Wipe off any excess with 
soft cheesecloth. Apply very lightly a little 
flesh color powder. 

Body color.—Apply grease paint suitable 
for the natural basic complexion, from the pink 
and peach of the young blonde to the ivory of 
old age; from the ruddy tan of the out-of-door 

[223] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


complexion to the pasty white of invalid. 
This will be the prevailing color of skin. The 
grease paint should be spread gently with the 
finger tips till face, ears, eyelids, and neck are 
thoroughly covered. Dust face over again 
with powder. 

Rouge.—In the use of rouge it should be 
remembered that the forehead appears light- 
est in color and more yellow than any other 
part of the body. Lighter red appears on the 
sides of the nose, just below the cheek bones, 
and on the cheeks above the line from the nose 
to the corner of the mouth. ‘The heavier tones 
appear lower on the face—on the jaws and 
around the chin. Just under the eyes a very 
transparent pale purplish tone is required. 
The ears (in health) are redder than other 
parts of face. In general, use rouge very 
cautiously. It is easy to use too much and 
make the face look patchy. Apply it so that 
it blends with the rest of the face. 

Great care should be exercised in making 

[224] 


EQUIPMENT 


up the eyes, nose, and mouth. The use of 
brown on the brows and lashes produces a 
much softer and more natural effect than 
black. A little light or dark blue close to the 
lashes of the upper lid is necessary, but very 
few need any make-up on the lower lid. If 
any is used, all that is required is a faint 
shadow of light blue. A dash of rouge in the 
inner corners of the eye adds brilliancy to the 
eye. The line of the upper lid and brows 
nearly always needs to be extended. This 
gives an effect of breadth to the eyes. 

A line of grease paint down the bridge of 
the nose will straighten it or lengthen it. The 
nose may be completely transformed by the 
use of putty. The mouth needs careful treat- 
ment. The dark red rouge so often used gives 
the appearance of a bloody gash. A bluish 
vermilion red is most natural. Do not color 
the mouth to the corners, for in speaking or 
laughing the mouth stretches and will look too 
large if deeply colored. In character make- 

[225] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


up, the problem is to adjust one physiognomy 
to the habitual expression of another. <A care- 
ful study of lines and color is necessary. 

It should always be borne in mind that the 
purpose of make-up is not to make one look 
unnatural by violent penciling and coloring, 
but to assist the actor’s face and expression 
to retain something of their natural values 
and to give dramatic emphasis. 

Important as the essentials of the equip- 
ment above described are for certain dramatic 
productions, increasing numbers of pageants, 
plays, and liturgical dramas are being written 
which may be produced behind the chancel, 
using the regular platform. In fact, many 
pageants and liturgical dramas are more effec- 
tive when presented in this manner. Some 
types of dramatic production do, however, re- 
quire material equipment. In its absence, in- 
genuity and resourcefulness plus artistic taste 
can often improvise from the means at hand 
devices for producing the desired dramatic 


effects. 
[226] 


EQUIPMENT 
BisLioGRAPHY 


Moderwell, Hiram Kelley, The Theatre of To-day, 
John Lane Co. 

Pichel, Irving, On Building a Theatre, Theatre Arts, 
Inc., New York, 1920. 

Lynn, R. A. N., Lynn’s Practical Hints on Make-up, 
London. 


[227] 


CHAPTER X 
AVAILABLE MATERIALS 


The following list covers quite thoroughly 
the available material in the field. The writer 
submits it with no apologies. It will be noted 
that, in a few instances, attention has been 
called to the strong points and weak points 
of a particular play. Many of them will 
meet the standard of measurement as to dra- 
matic technique, literary quality, good emo- 
tional appeal, educational merit, and religious 
message. Others will meet only one or two of 
these requirements. 


CHILDREN’S PLAYS 
Bible Plays, by Rita Benton, Abingdon 
Press. This book contains the following 


plays: 
[228] 


MATERIALS 


Joseph and His Brethren. This is di- 
vided into five acts: Act I—Vale of 
Shechem; Act II—Street in Egypt; Act 
I1I—Gardens of Pharaoh; Act [¥V—Pub- 
lie Garden; Act V—Gardens of Joseph. 
Characters required are Jacob, his twelve 
sons, the wife of Potiphar, Pharaoh, and 
attendants. 

The Golden Calf—Three characters are 
required. 

Daughters of Jephthah—Three main 
characters with warriors and maidens are 
required. 

E'sther—This may be used out-of-doors. 
Five main characters, six princes of Baby- 
lon, pages, soldiers, and maidens are re- 
quired. 

Ruth and Boaz.—This may be used out- 
of-doors. Nine main characters, elders, and 
reapers are required. 

Daniel—vTen main characters and twelve 
others are required. 

The Burning Fiery Furnace.—F ive main 

[229] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


characters, lads, and Jews are required. 
The Christmas Story.—Fifteen charac- 
ters and a reader are required. 


Bible Plays for Children, by May Stein 
Sobel, J. T. White & Co., New York. This 
book contains the dramatization of the fol- 
lowing Bible stories: 


Adam and Eve. 

Moses in the Bulrushes. 
Moses, the Shepherd. 
The Golden Calf. 

The Promised Land. 
David and Goliath. 


These are suitable for class-room work. 

Shorter Bible Plays, by Rita Benton, Ab- 
ingdon Press. 'This book contains the follow- 
ing plays consisting of one scene: 


Noah’s Flood. 

The Proving of Abraham. 

Moses in the Bulrushes. 
[230] 


MATERIALS 


Up, Up from Egypt to the Promised 
Land. 

The Call of Samuel. 

David and Goliath. 

The Judgment of Solomon. 

The Good Samaritan. 

Manger Service. 


Alice’s Housewarming, by Anita B. Ferris, 
Missionary Education Movement. 

An Americanization play with the scene laid 
in the House of Friendship. At a party 
where only Americans are invited, a Negro, a 
Mountaineer, and Child Immigrants from 
many lands arrive and cause much surprise. 
Fourteen boys and girls, aged nine to twelve, 
are required. ‘Time: twenty minutes. 

Alice Through the Postal Card, by Anita 
Ferris, Missionary Education Movement. 

This play tells what happened to Alice when 
she stepped through a postal card into Japan. 
Eighteen junior boys and girls are required. 
Time: thirty minutes. 

[231] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


The Children’s Christmas Dream, by Mary 
E. Tilford, Arthur H. Strouse Publishing Co. 

A one-act play for children. 

The Child in the Midst, by Kathrine Stan- 
ley Hall, Abingdon Press. 

A pageant for children. Time: thirty min- 
utes. 

Children of Christmas, by Anita B. Ferris, 
Missionary Education Movement. 

This play presents a lesson in world brother- 
hood (Christmas). ‘Time: fifteen minutes. 

Dramatic Games and Dances, by Caroline 
Crawford, A. S. Barnes Co. 

Four Plays, Livingston Hero Plays, by 
Anita Ferris, Missionary Education Move- 
ment: The Mill Boy, A Fight with the Lion, 
The Slave Raiders, and Faithful Friends. 

These plays present four incidents in David 
Livingstone’s life. Each one is a dramatic 
unit and may be presented separately or all 
three given as one performance. It requires 
twelve to fifty junior boys and girls. ‘Time: 
fifty minutes. 

[232] 


MATERIALS 


Little Pilgrims and the Book Beloved, by 
Marie J. Hobart, Educational Division, De- 
partment of Missions, Protestant Episcopal 
Church. 

A mystery play suitable for junior boys 
and girls. 

The Promise of a New Day, by D. W. 
Jones, Association Press. 

This is a pageant dealing with the fourfold 
life—mental, physical, social, and religious— 
presenting the results of all-round develop- 
ment in terms of world progress. 

Ruth’s Donation Party, by Anita Ferris, 
Missionary Education Movement. 

Arranged for eleven junior boys and girls. 
Time: thirty minutes. 

Santa's Allies, by Anita Ferris, Missionary 
Education Movement. 

This play presents the idea of a summer 
Christmas tree where children can bestow gifts 
for a mission school, a hospital, and the Red 
Cross. Sixteen characters required; fifty-six 
may be used. ‘Time: one hour. 

[233] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


The Song They Sang, by Laura Scherer Co- 
penhaver, Literature Headquarters, Women’s 
Missionary Society of the United Lutheran 
Church of America. 

A splendid missionary play for girls. 
There are careful stage directions and sug- 
gestions for costumes. 

Three Plays for Boys, by Frederick Fay 
and Mary Alice Emerson, Boy Scout Head- 
quarters. 

A Regular Fellow is a three-act play. 

Time: one hour. 

Lend a Hand may be used for a Boy 

Scout demonstration in signaling. 

If I Were Bob is built around camp life. 

Through the Sunday School Door, by Anita 
Ferris, Missionary Education Movement. 

This is a children’s day service illustrating 
the joy it brings to children in distant lands. 
It requires thirteen characters. Time: thirty 
minutes. 

Visitors from the Colonial Period, by Anita 
Ferris, Missionary Education Movement. 

[234] 


MATERIALS 


This is an Easter play. Its purpose is 
to create interest in the Highlanders, showing 
a boy and girl from the southern mountains 
with Colonial manners. Nine children and one 
adult are required. Time: thirty minutes. 

Why Didn't You Tell? by Anita Ferris, 
Missionary Education Movement. 

This is an Easter program for younger 
children. ‘Twenty-seven characters are re- 
quired. ‘Time: thirty minutes. 


CHRISTMAS PLAYS 


Adeste Fideles, by Marie E. J. Hobart, 
Churchman Co., New York, 50 cents. 

A Christmas mystery play, symbolic, deeply 
religious. Nine boys, twelve girls. Time: 
forty minutes. 

A Dream on Christmas Eve, by Ina Home, 
Samuel French. 

This is a children’s Christmas play and may 
be presented in a class-room. 

Bethlehem, by Alice Corbin Henderson, 

[235] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


from Adam’s Dream and Other Miracle Plays, 
Scribner’s. (This book is out of print but 
may be found in most libraries.) 

A one-act play with the scene showing the 
inn to which Mary and Joseph came. It may 
be used for adults or children. Very beauti- 
ful, has literary merit. Fifteen to twenty 
characters are required. 

Bethlehem, by Lawrence Housman, Mac- 
millan Co. 

This play has nothing of the medieval about 
it, but it is intensely modern. The author 
makes his defense for the setting in these 
words: “I wish to show that it is possible for 
drama to come near without irreverence to the 
central truths of Christianity and by symbolic 
action to quicken the imagination of the be- 
holders so as to make the beauty of holiness 
more evident, so as to make time seem a very 
little thing when the spiritual ideas which have 
molded the world’s history are concerned, so as 
to startle men’s minds to a realization of 
whether for them Christianity is a curious relic 

[236] 


MATERIALS 


of the past or a truth still living and central.” 
This play contains three acts: “The Shep- 
herds,” ‘“The Seeking Kings,” “The Adora- 
tion.” Plays an entire evening. 

Birds’ Christmas Carol, by Kate Douglas 
Wiggin, Houghton Mifflin Co. 

This is a dramatization of the well known 
story. It contains a prologue and three acts. 
Seventeen characters: three men, three women, 
and the Ruggles children. Plays a whole eve- 
ning. Special permission necessary for pro- 
duction. Write Miss A. Kausan, 1402 Broad- 
way, New York. 

The Birth of Christ, by Paul Se. Willis 
Music Co. 

This makes use of tableaux with music and 
descriptive reading. 

The Christmas Guest, by Constance D’ Arcy 
Mackay, in The House of the Heart and 
Other Plays, Henry Holt & Co. 

This play has for its theme the old Christ- 
mas miracle. It is pleasing. ‘The characters 
are five women, three men, and eight children. 

[237] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Written in verse, it tells the story of the gift 
by children to a beggar who turned out to be 
the Christmas angel. 

The Christmas Story, by Virginia Griswold, 
Samuel French. - 

This is a story of the birth of Christ, using 
quite largely the biblical language. ‘There 
are four scenes: “The Hill Country of Ju- 
dea,” “The Throne Room of Herod,” “The 
Market Place in Bethlehem,” and “The Man- 
ger Scene.” Any number of adults and chil- 
dren may be used. Plays one hour. 

Children’s Christmas Dream, by Mary E. 
Tilford, Abingdon Press. 

Simple, yet attractive. 

A Christmas Miracle Play, adapted from 
an ancient miracle. One act. Cast calls for 
twenty-five or less. Time: forty-five min- 
utes. Special permission required. Write 
Norman Lee Swartwout, Summit, N. J. 

A Christmas Miracle Play. 'This play has 
been adapted by Samuel Eliot from the 
Coventry Cycle. Drama League Bookshop. 

[238] 


MATERIALS 


No. 1 of Little Theatre Classics. 'Thirteen 
women, one man. Requires skilful players. 

A Christmas Pageant, by Carroll Lund 
Bates, from Seven Church Pageants, Parish 
Leaflet Co. 

This is a beautiful service. May be pre- 
sented at the close of a worship service. Re- 
quires seventeen children and eighteen young 
people. Time: thirty minutes. 

Christmas Tableaux, by Nora Archibald 
Smith, Moffat Yard & Co. 

The Cross Goes Westward, by C. H. Jar- 
rett, Educational Division of Missions, Epis- 
copal Church, 281 Fourth Avenue, New York, 

This dramatic presentation may be used for 
either Christmas or Easter. There are eight 
scenes: “St. Paul and the Centurion,” “Karly 
Britons,” “English Settlers in America,” “Pio- 
neers in the West,’ “Slavery,” “Indians,” 
“Gold Mining in California,” “Eskimos.” 
Twenty-five speaking parts. Any number of 
children may be used. ‘Time: one hour. 

Eagerheart, A. M. Buckton, Chappell, Ltd. 

[239] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


This was first produced by early monastic 
writers. It is a mystery play of great beauty. 
Eleven men, two women, extras may be used. 
Time: one and one-half hours. For permis- 
sion to produce, write President of the New 
York Association of Eagerheart, Mrs. EK. D. 
Klots, 125 West 78th Street, New York. 

The Evergreen Tree, by Percy Mackaye, 
D. Appleton & Co. 

This is a masque and represents the best in 
the field of religious drama. Scriptural theme 
from Matthew II. There are two stages, A 
and B, and two aisles, the audience being 
seated between them. Stage A is the “place 
of the outcast” with an evergreen tree. Stage 
B, located opposite stage A, represents the 
“court of Herod.” The two aisles are path- 
ways. ‘This masque is performed in twelve 
actions: 1. “Who Kept the Watch?” 2. 
“The Lantern in the Desert.” 3. “Somebody 
is Coming.” 4. “The Light Child.” 5. “Sa- 
viour of the World.” 6. “The Befriendling.” 
7. “The Three Wise Men.” 8. “Which, O 

[240] 


MATERIALS 


Lord, Is Wisest?” 9. “Outcasts.” 10. “The 
Wounded Pedlar.” 11. “The Persecuting 
Host.” 12. “The Morning Stars.” The mu- 
sic of the choruses and carols is composed by 
Arthur Farwell and may be secured through 
the John Church Co., 89 West 32nd Street, 
New York. Permission to produce must be 
obtained from John Church Co. ‘Twenty-five 
men, four women. May be produced simply 
or elaborately. 

Garments of Praise, by Florence Converse, 
E. P. Dutton & Co., from the Cycle of Four 
Miracle Plays. 

The Gifts We Bring, T. S. Denison & Co. 

This is a Christmas pageant. It may be 
used by any organization. The Christmas 
story 1s told by a mother. It requires from 
fifty to three hundred characters. Complete 
stage directions are given. ‘Time: one hour. 

Good King Wenceslas, Church Missions 
Publishing Co. 

This is a Christmas pantomime for children. 
It requires five children. 

[241] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


The Greatest Gift, by Katherine Lord, 
Abingdon Press. Printed in the Little Play 
Book. 

This story tells how a tenement house family 
finds that the greatest Christmas gift is love 
and neighborliness. There are three scenes. 
Fifty or more characters, of whom nineteen 
should be children. ‘Time: forty-five minutes. 

The Little Town of Bethlehem, by Mrs. 
Spencer Trask, Drama League. 

This play is well constructed and is of lit- 
erary value. The story deals with the Roman 
and Jewish attitudes toward Christ and, in 
contrast with His attitude toward them. 
Neither Christ nor Mary appears on the stage. 
The exterior of the stable is shown, and from 
the inside the voice of the Mother is heard in 
songs of praise. ‘The play is reverent, sincere, 
and appealing. Plays an entire evening. 

The Message of the Christ Child, by Marian 
Manley, Abingdon Press. 

This is a Christmas pageant with a mis- 
sionary message. It requires from sixteen to 

[242] 


MATERIALS 


thirty children and adults. Time: one hour. 

The Natiwty, by Lenora Ashton, Young 
Churchman Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 

This is a Christmas mystery. The char- 
acters and chorus. ‘Time: one and one-half 
hours. 

The Nativity, Anonymous, Samuel French. 

The Bible story is used in this mystery play. 
There is beautiful use made of carols. Any 
number of characters may be used. 

The Nativity, by Rosamond Kimball, Sam- 
uel French. 

Tells the story of the nativity through tab- 
leaux accompanied by congregational singing 
of carols and hymns. It can be made a beau- 
tiful service. Any number of characters may 
be used. 

The Ninth Christmas, by R. F. Sandall, 
Pilgrim Congregational Church, Seattle, 
Wash. 

This is an elaborate production. It con- 
sists of two acts, divided into five scenes. Any 
number of characters may be used. 

[243] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


No Room in the Inn, Macmillan Co. 

A Christmas play in three scenes. It re- 
quires eight men and one woman. ‘Time: one 
hour. 

The Prophetic. Child, by Langley Sears, 
Pilgrim Press. This pageant has six scenes. 
It makes use of old hymns and Bible texts. 
Any number of characters. Time: one hour. 

The Shepherds, by Katherine Kenyon, Mac- 
millan Co. 

A Christmas play arranged for fourteen 
adults. 

Star of Bethlehem, by Frances C. Barney, 
Educational Division, Department of Mis- 
sions, Protestant Episcopal Church. 

This is a simple children’s missionary play 
for Christmas. The white children are sent 
by the angel of the star to find and to bring 
to the star children of other races. Time: 
thirty minutes. 

The Spirit of Christmas, by Jane Dansfield, 
Norman Lee Swartwout, Summit, N. J. 
(manuscript). 

[244] 


MATERIALS 


This story is told by an interlocutor with 
musical accompaniment. Llustrated by six 
tableaux. Simple to produce. 

The Spirit of Christmas, by Grace E. Craig, 
Woman’s Press. 

This is a simple Christmas play. Six- 
teen characters or more. ‘Time: forty min- 
utes. 

The Voices of the Stars, Frank Monroe 
Jeffery, Century Co. 

This is a musical drama, and requires care- 
ful preparation. 

The W aif, by Elizabeth Grimball, Woman’s 
Press. 

This is a beautiful yet simple modern mer- 
ality. There are seven principal characters 
with as many others as desired. Time: 
thirty minutes. 

Why the Chimes Rang, by Elizabeth Mc- 
Fadden, Samuel French. 

The story of the play is taken from the book 
of the same name, published by Bobbs-Merrill 
Co., Indianapolis, Ind. Four men and four 

[245] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


women are required with “lords” and “ladies.” 
Time: forty minutes. 

When the Star Shone, by Lyman R. Bay- 
ard, Pageant Publishing Co. 

This is a very elaborate and _ beautiful 
pageant. As many characters as desired. 
Time: two hours. 


EASTER PLAYS 


The Chalice and the Cup, by Mary S. Ed- 
gar, Woman’s Press, New York. 

This is a vesper service. It is an appeal 
for service. Simple, yet effective. There are 
three main characters and any number of 
others. Time: thirty minutes. 

The Children’s Crusade, by Juliana Cono- 
ver, Church Missions Publishing Co. 

This is a two-act Easter play of the eleventh 
century. Boys, girls, and mothers. Time: 
one hour. 

The Consecration of Sir Galahad, by 
Eugene Shippen and Elizabeth Shippen, Bea- 
con Press. 

[246] 


MATERIALS 


This is a symbolic service for Easter pre- 
sented by.means of tableaux and music with a 
dramatic reader. 

The Dawning, by Lyman R. Bayard, Pag- 
eant Publishing Co. 

This makes use of hymns. Requires a 
large cast. ‘Time: one hour and forty-five 
minutes. 

An Easter Pageant, by Carroll Lund Bates, 
from Seven Church Pageants, Parish Leaflet 
Co. Requires twenty-two young men and 
women. ‘Time: one hour. 

Eastertide, by Paul Bliss, Willis Music Co. 

This tells the Easter story by means of tab- 
leaux, singing, and descriptive reading. 
The music is arranged for women’s and 
children’s voices. 

He is the Son of God, by Dr. Linwood Taft, 
Drama League. 

This a Drama League prize play: a play 
for Holy Week. It shows the effects of 
the miracles and personality of Christ upon a 
Jewish woman of orthodox training. 

[247] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


How the Light Came, by F. D. Graves, 
Church Mission Publishing Co. 

This is a mystery play. Requires eighteen 
characters with a procession of children. 
Time: forty-five minutes. 

Darkness and Dawn, by Frederick Le- 
Fevre Bellamy, Educational Division, De- 
partment of Missions Protestant Episcopal 
Church. 

It is an Easter mystery play. Requires 
sixteen characters. 

Thy Kingdom Come, by Florence Converse, 
Atlantic Monthly, March, 1921. 

This is an Easter miracle play. 

The Mirror for Souls, by Margaret Cooper, 
Macmillan Co. 

This is a mystery play. It requires six 
women, four men, and three children. ‘Time: 
one and one-half hours. 

The Resurrection, by Lenora S. Ashton, 
Morehouse Publishing Co. 

An Easter mystery play. Requires nine 

[248] 


MATERIALS 


men and three women. Time: one and one- 
half hours. 

The Resurrection, by Rosamond Kimball, 
Samuel French. 

This play is composed of selections from the 
Bible arranged in dramatic form. It pictures 
in tableaux the story of the Resurrection and 
is accompanied by Bach’s Passion Music. It 
requires thirteen men and two women, also a 
reader. ‘Time: one hour. 

Why Didwt Yow Tell? By Anita Ferris, 
Missionary Education Movement. 

This is for children from five to ten years 
of age. The children of Nature try to tell 
the foreign children of Christ’s love, and when 
they fail the Christians try and succeed. 

Youth's Easter, by Helen Willcox, Mis- 
sionary Education Movement. 

Special music is included with the play. 

This is a morality play. There are sixteen 
speaking parts; the minimum number of par- 
ticipants is forty-four. Time: thirty minutes. 

[249] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


GENERAL PLAYS 


Abraham and Isaac, a medieval play, 
Houghton-Mifflin Co. 

This is a beautiful presentation of the 
medieval spirit. Developed with choruses. 
Characters: Abraham, Isaac, the Angel, the 
Doctor, and the Voice. 

Advance the Line, by Marie Hobart, Long- 
mans, Green & Co. 

This play centers around the Episcopal 
Prayer Book. Accurate but not elaborate 
costuming is required. Requires four men 
and six women. ‘Time: forty-five minutes. 

A Pageant of the Church, by Eleanor F. 
Forman and Mabel Stone, Young Women’s 
Christian Association. 

This play presents scenes taken from church 
history with interludes representing a certain 
phase of modern church life, which has been an 
outgrowth of the historic scene depicted. 

Amos, the Shepherd Prophet, by Eleanor 
Wood Whitman, Pilgrim Press. 

[250] 


MATERIALS 


This play has two scenes. The first is the 
dawn of the feast day, and the second is the 
evening of the same day before the altar built 
to the golden calf. Amos gives his prophecy, 
which is fulfilled. This play requires thirteen 
men and three women. Amos must be a 
strong character. Time: one and one-half 
hours. 

Gaius Gracchus, by Odin Gregory, Boni & 
Liveright. 

This is a difficult play but can be produced 
by amateurs. It is a Roman tragedy. It re- 
quires eighteen characters and many extras. 
Time: two hours. 

The City Beautiful, by H. Augustine Smith, 
Abingdon Press. 

This is an allegorical pageant. There are 
six scenes: 1. “Holy City of David.” 2. 
“Holy City on Palm Sunday.” 3. “Holy 
City under Mohammedan Rule.” 4. “Forces 
of Evil at Work in a Modern City.” 5. ‘The 
City of the New World Order.” 6. “A 
Prephet’s Vision of the Future City.” 

[251] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Drama of Esther, arranged by class in re- 
ligious pedagogy at the National Training 
School, Y. W. C. A. Woman’s Press. 

An all-girl cast. 

Everyman (early church morality, Samuel 
French. 

This play has real literary value. It tells 
the story of Everyman’s career, his call by 
Death; Good Deeds befriends him. It re- 
quires eleven men and five women. 

Everygirl, by Mary S. Edgar, Woman’s 
Press. 

This is an allegory for girls. It is at- 
tractively written. Everygirl sets out on her 
quest of life accompanied by her three com- 
panions, Health, Beauty, and Dreams. May 
use any number of characters. Time: one 
and one-half hours. 

Florence Nightingale, by Edith Reid, Mac- 
millan Co. 

A play in three acts dealing with the life 
of Florence Nightingale. 

In His Steps, by Charles M. Sheldon and 

[252] 


MATERIALS 


Frank H. Lane. May be secured from 
Professor F. H. Lane, University of Pitts- 
burgh. 

This is a dramatization of the book of the 
same name by Charles M. Sheldon. The 
story centers around the devotion of two col- 
lege girls, society people, and two prosperous 
business men, to the cause of Jesus in the slums 
and in daily life. Play requires eight men and 
five women. ‘Time: two hours. 

The Idle and the Ideal Associate, by Eliza- 
beth Goodspeed, Church Missions Publishing 
Co. 

A play in two acts. It requires six girls. 
Time: thirty minutes. 

Isaiah, by Eleanor Wood Whitman, Pil- 
grim Press. 

This story tells of the war-time prophet of 
the Old Testament from the days of Uzziah to 
the days of Hezekiah. The play has good 
chorus music. Four men and five women and 
twenty or more others are required. Time: 
one and one-half hours. 

[253] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Jeremiah, by Eleanor Wood Whitman, Pil- 
grim Press. 

The delineation of Jeremiah is interesting. 
He is interpreted not as a man of sorrows, but 
as a brave hero who prophesied the destruction 
of Jerusalem as the result of the unfaithful- 
ness of the people of Jehovah. Jeremiah 
meets death as a martyr. ‘Twelve main char- 
acters with numerous others are required. 
Time: one and one-half hours. 

Joseph in Egypt, by T. G. Crippen, Dra- 
matic Publishing Co. 

This story gives us the life of Joseph. The 
ending is made especially impressive by the 
blessing of Jacob. Requires twenty-three 
players: the Hebrews, consisting of Jacob and 
his twelve sons, a daughter of Jacob, a 
stranger, and two mute characters; and the 
Egyptians, consisting of Pharaoh, -six men of 
the court, and Joseph’s wife, Asenath. There 
are five acts. ‘Time: two hours. 

Joseph and His Brethren, by H. T. Gaird- 
ner, Macmillan Co. 

[254] 


MATERIALS 


This play presents the life of Joseph. 
There are four acts. About thirty-six char- 
acters required: thirty men, three women, three 
boys. 'Time: two hours. 

Judas Iscariot, by Charlotte Gleason, 
George H. Doran & Co. 

This is a biblical play in three acts. It has 
good dramatic and literary values. 

Judith, by Arnold Bennett, George H. 
Doran & Co. 

This is a simple play but presents the re- 
ligious significance of the story very im- 
pressively and forcefully. Permission for 
production may be obtained from the pub- 
lishers. | 

Job, by James S. Stephens, Stratford Co., 
Boston. 

This play deals with the problem of human 
suffering. It is divided into “The Prologue,” 
“The Curse,” ‘The Debate,” “The Interposi- 
tion of Elihu,” “The Voice of the Lord,” and 
“The Epilogue.” Time: one and one-half 
hours. 

[255] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


The Gate of Vision, by M. Creagh-Henry, 
Macmillan Co. 

This is a modern mystery play. ‘The char- 
acters are Anarchist, Artist, Dancer, Miser, 
Painter, Woman, Shepherd, Soldier, Rich 
Man, Profiteer. 

The Mission of the Church, by William 
Chauncy Langdon, Educational Division, De- 
partment of Missions, Protestant E’piscopal 
Church. 

This is a missionary play presenting the 
needs of humanity. It is unusual in its struc- 
ture and plot. Three Voices representing 
three elements of religious life—Meditation, 
Word of God, and Human Spirit—are the 
only speaking parts. 

The Passing of the Kings, by Mina B. 
Lambkin, T. S. Denison & Co. 

This is a pageant with eight episodes and 
five symbolic interludes. It is an _ historic 
sketch of the Christian Era. It requires from 
one hundred to one thousand characters. 
Time: two hours. 

[256] 


MATERIALS 


The Light of the World, by H. Augustine 
Smith. 

This is a very effective pageant and sim- 
ple of production. Any number of charac- 
ters may be used. 

The Light of the World, by Mrs. Annie 
Russell Marble, Worcester, Mass. Informa- 
tion from the author. 

This is a dramatic service portraying the 
life of Jesus by means of a messenger, reading 
of the Scripture, choruses, tableaux, and 
colored slides. 

The Rich Young Man, by Sara Kingsbury, 
Abingdon Press. 

This is a strong religious play. The plot 
is built around the biblical story of the Rich 
Young Ruler. It requires sixteen adult char- 
acters. 'Time: one and one-half hours. 

Passover Night, by W. H. T. Gairdner, 
Macmillan Co. 

This play is based upon the biblical story 
of the Passover. About ten men, one girl, 
and three boys are required. Time: one hour. 

[257] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


The Maccabees, by Marin De Boylesne, 
Dramatic Publishing Co. 

This play deals with the house of the Mac- 
cabees. The wars of the Maccabees form the 
plot. ‘Twelve men are required. 

The Passing of the Third Floor Back, by 
Jerome K. Jerome, Dodd, Mead & Co. 

This play might be termed a modern moral- 
ity. It has a practical message and has met 
with a sympathetic response. Vices such as 
Cheating, Bullying, Cowardice, and Roguish- 
ness are personified. Such virtues as Mercy, 
Gentleness, and the Christ-idea are also per- 
sonified and are triumphant. Five men and 
six women are required. 

The Piper, by Josephine Preston Peabody, 
Samuel French. 

This play is based on the story of “The Pied 
Piper of Hamlin.” It is beautiful yet serious 
in its import. It is written in poetic form. 
It emphasizes the wrongs of religious bigotry 
and intolerance and the materialistic attitude 
toward life. Thirteen men, six women, and 

[258] 


MATERIALS 


five children are required besides burglars, 
nuns, priests, and children. Time: two hours. 

The Queen of Sheba, by C. F. Hanssen, 
Dramatic Publishing Co. 

This play deals with Solomon’s reign in the 
Hebrew Court. It is a strong play. The 
climax is not especially strong. The miracle 
performed is foreign to the theme and de- 
tracts from it. Fifteen characters are re- 
quired. 

Rebekah, Marie EK. Hobart, Domestic and 
Foreign Mission Society. 

This play centers around the story of Isaac 
and Rebekah. The characters are six women, 
five men, water-carriers, and servants. 'Time: 
one and one-half hours. | 

The Rock, Pilgrim Press. This is a Drama 
League prize play. 

This play shows the development of char- 
acter of Simon Peter. It is intense and dra- 
matic. Requires eight men and three women. 

Ruth, by Annabel Lawrence, T. S. Denison 
& Co. 

[259] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


This play deals with the biblical story of 
Ruth. There are three acts. ‘The last scene 
presents the marriage of Boaz and Ruth. 
These are the main characters. 

Ruth, by Mary Blakehorn, Morehouse Pub- 
lishing Co. | 

This play deals with the biblical story of 
Ruth. The play contains three acts. Thirty 
characters are required. 

Ruth, the Loving, by C. A. Boyd, Pilgrim 
Press. 

This play presents the story of Ruth, using 
almost the exact wording of the Bible. Tab- 
leaux are used. Six men and three women for 
principals, and four men and four women for 
minor parts are required. 

The Sangreal, by Irwin St. John Tucker, 
1541 Unity Building, Chicago. 

This play deals with the old Arthurian leg- 
ends. It develops the themes of justice, free- 
dom, and the brotherhood of man. Twenty- 
three players are required. 

[ 260 | 


MATERIALS 


Saul of Tarsus, by Charles H. Holcomb, 
Standard Publishing Co. 

The play is intense and tragic. It depends 
too much upon the miracle aspect. ‘There are 
four acts. Four men and five women are re- 
quired. ‘Time: one hour, 

Sacrifice, by Lawrence I. McQueen, Drama 
Magazine, March, 1921. 

This is a story of Abraham and Isaac. It 
is very dramatic. Four characters are re- 
quired. 

The Servant in the House, by Charles Rann 
Kennedy, Samuel French. 

This play has excellent dramatic and liter- 
ary qualities. It has a powerful character in 
the person of the Servant. The theme of the 
play is the Christian brotherhood of mankind, 
which implies the Golden Rule. It contains 
five acts. The characters are: Rev. James 
Makeshyfte, the Vicar, the Vicar’s wife, Mary 
(their niece), Mr. Robert Smity, the page 
boy, and Mason (the butler). 

[261] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


Star of the East, by Anna Jane Harnwell, 
French. A Drama League prize play. 

This play deals with the dramatic story of 
Esther. It adheres quite closely to the word- 
ing of the Bible story. Nine men and four 
women are required. 

The Terrible Week, by Charles Rann Ken- 
nedy, Harper & Bros. 

The theme of this play is the Crucifixion. 
The special feature is the use of voices on the 
dark stages. 

Tyndale, by Parker Hord, Abingdon Press. 

This drama is based on four episodes in the 
life of William Tyndale, the first translator of 
the New Testament into English. 


MIssIONARY PLAYS 


A Beginning, by E. M. James, Church Mis- 
sions Publishing Co. 

A mother has a vision of the need of the 
children of the mission fields and helps the chil- 
dren of the homeland to see the need. Twenty- 

[262] 


MATERIALS 


six characters are required. Time: one and 
one-half hours. 

A Choice of Evils, by Ruth Jacobs, Church 
Missions Publishing Co. 

There is plenty of good humor and teaching 
in this little play. The story is built around a 
little Chinese boy. There are sixteen char- 
acters besides pictorial characters. 

The Blue Cashmere Gown, by Sarah Pratt, 
Church Missions Publishing Co. 

Children of the Shadow, by Lydia I. Well- 
man, Abingdon Press. 

This is a story showing the conflict between 
the traditional and Christian ideas of mar- 
riage in Africa. Eighteen characters are re- 
quired, all of whom are natives except the 
missionary and his wife. ‘Time: one and one- 
half hours. 

Conquerors of the Continent, by Alice 
Gwendowline Allie, Church Missions Publish- 
ing Co. 

This is a pageant showing the progress of 
the Church in America. ‘The episodes are the 

[263] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


founding of the Church, the Church’s first 
mission, the Church’s work in the West, in the 
Far West, in Alaska. 

Crossroad Meeting-house, by Mary Meek 
Atkeson, Missionary Education Movement. 

This is a home missionary play dealing with 
the problems of the rural church. It is humor- 
ous and constructive in its teaching. Eleven 
characters are required. ‘Time: one hour. 

The Cross Goes Westward (see Christmas 
Plays). 

Dinah, Queen of the Berbers, by Clarice V. 
McCauley, Abingdon Press. 

This play is well constructed, is of dramatic 
value, and deals with the fall of Christianity 
in Algeria and North Africa in the seventh 
century. Eleven principal characters are re- 
quired and as many others as are desired. 
Time: one hour. 

The Doors of Nippon, by A. G. Albee, 
Church Missions Publishing Co. 

This is an allegorical play presenting the 

[264] 


MATERIALS 


awakening of Japan. There are twenty-one 
speaking parts. 

Dramatic Sketches of Mission Fields, by 
Helen Willcox. Department of Missionary 
Education, Baptist Board of Education. 

Election Day, by Helen Willcox, Mis- 
sionary Education Movement. 

This is a story of an American Highlander 
who was ready to die for his faith. Five char- 
acters are required. ‘Time: thirty-five min- 
utes. 

Go Tell (see Easter Plays). 

The Herowe of Ava, by Helen Willcox, 
Missionary Education Movement. 

This is a story of Burma in the day of Adon- 
iram and Ann Judson, showing Ann Judson’s 
heroic efforts to release her husband from 
prison. About fifteen characters are required. 
Time: one and one-half hours. 

The Honorable Mrs. Ling’s Conversion, by 
Jean H. Brown, Missionary Education Move- 
ment. 

[265] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


This is a Chinese play, portraying the Chi- 
nese home life and the realities of the mission 
station. Humor and pathos are delightfully 
blended. Fourteen characters are required. 
Time: one hour. 

The Hour of Waking, by Marian Manley, 
Abingdon Press. 

This story deals with the awakening of China 
brought about by the forces of freedom and 
progress, setting forth the need of Christian 
guidance. About fifty-five characters are re- 
quired. Time: one hour. 

Kanyunda, or Fear from the Enemy, by 
Helen Willcox, Abingdon Press. 

Shows the waning of the witch-doctor’s spell 
in Africa. Fifteen characters (of whom six 
are children) are required. Time: one hour. 

Kosiki, by Amy Kellogg, Missionary Ed- 
ucation Movement. 

This play shows the transformation of a 
Korean village brought about through the in- 
fluence of one convert to Christianity. There 
are only six speaking parts, but about twenty 

[266] 


MATERIALS 


characters are required. Time: twenty min- 
utes. 

Larola, by Helen Wilicox, Abingdon Press. 

This is a one-act play telling the pathetic 
story of a Hindu woman condemned to widow- 
hood upon her husband’s conversion to Chris- 
tianity. Eight characters are required. 
Time: about one hour. 

Mother Church and Her Juniors, Educa- 
tional Division, Department of Missions, Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church. 

This is a missionary play for juniors. Nine 
characters are required. ‘Time: twenty min- 
utes. 

A Mock Trial, Heathen Nations vs. Amer- 
ican Christian, by Anna E. Deal, Woman’s 
American Baptist Foreign Mission Society. 

The Grand Jury of the State of Heathen- 
dom accuses the American Christian of the 
crime of neglect. This play is cleverly writ- 
ten. About twenty-two characters are re- 
quired. Time: thirty minutes. 

New Brooms for Old, by Bertha Beck, Gen- 

[267] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


eral promotion Board of Baptist Church. 

A humorous home mission play with a good 
lesson. It requires sixteen characters. Time: 
thirty minutes. 

Plea for Pennies, by Gretchen Green, 
Church Missions Publishing Co. 

A little boy and girl are taught the mis- 
sionary spirit by means of a dream picture. 
The tableaux are very effective. Characters: 
Seven girls as spirit of the Missions and the 
people of the tableaux. ‘Time: one and one- 
half hours. 

Pill Bottle, Margaret Applegarth, Abing- 
don Press. 

A medical missionary play. A modern col- 
lege girl desires to become an interior dec- 
orator, but a visit to her missionary parents in 
India changes her decision and she decides to 
become a doctor. ‘Twenty people are required. 
Time: one hour. | 

The Red Flower, by Helen Harrington, 
Missionary Education Movement. 

This is a play of exceptional power. The 

[268] 


MATERIALS 


scene is laid in modern Armenia. It shows 
the courageous spirit of the Armenian Chris- 
tian and the need of this martyr nation. 
Seventeen characters are required. Time: 
forty-five minutes. 

Robert and Mary, by Anita Ferris, Mis- 
sionary Education Movement. 

A missionary romance. Thirteen charac- 
ters are required. ‘Time: one hour. 

The Seeker, by Clarice V. McCauley, 
Methodist Book Concern. 

This is an elaborate pageant. Symbolic in 
character and very dramatic. It portrays the 
search of Humanity after God. There are 
twelve speaking parts, but about ninety char- 
acters are required. ‘Time: one and one-half 
hours. 

Spirit of the Fathers, by Anita Ferris, 
Methodist Book Concern. 

This is a story of the development of the 
missionary work of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. The pictorial effects are quite good. 
The Committee on Conservation and Advance 

[269] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


will give much assistance in the production of 
this pageant. 

Sunlight or Candle Light, by Helen L. 
Willcox, Missionary Education Movement. 

An American heiress unexpectedly meets 
some Japanese acquaintances in their home 
town and learns many things about America. 
Five characters are required. ‘Time: forty- 
five minutes. 

Slave Girl and School Girl, by Helen L. 
Willcox, Missionary Education Movement. 

Shows a Chinese bookseller’s experiment 
with Western learning and his daughter’s 
friendship for a kidnapped slave. Seven char- 
acters are required. ‘Time: thirty minutes. 

The Test, by Helen Willcox, Missionary 
Education Movement. 

The supreme test of faith is met first by 
a Christian missionary and then by a Moslem. 
Written in blank verse. Seven characters are 
required. 

Two Thousand Miles for a Book, by Helen 
Willcox, Missionary Education Movement. 

[270] 


MATERIALS 


The story of the Nez Percé Indians, who 
traveled from the Northwest to St. Louis in 
search of the White Man’s Book of Heaven. 
There are twenty-five speaking parts, but 
thirty or more characters are required. Time: 
one and one-half hours. 

Two Masters, by Bertha Cooper Fraser, 
Woman’s Board of Home Missions of the 
Presbyterian Church. 

‘This is a delightful little play showing the 
difficulty of serving two masters and a young 
girl’s decision. Four girls and four women 
required. ‘Time: forty-five minutes. 


THANKSGIVING PLAYS 


The First Thanksgiving Dinner, by Mar- 
jorie Benton Cook, Dramatic League Shop. 
A Thanksgiving play for boys and girls 
from twelve to fourteen years. Characters: 
seven boys, three girls. ‘Time: one-half hour. 
Fath of Our Fathers, by Annie Russell 
Marble, Bureau of Educational Dramatics, 
Community Service, Inc. 
[271] 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 


This is a Pilgrim pageant which may be 
used for Tranksgiving. 

A Pageant of Pilgrims, by Esther Willard 
Bates, Pilgrim Press. 

This is a historical pageant. 

The Spirit of Thanksgiving, by Laura 
Wade Rice, Literature Headquarters, Wom- 
an’s Missionary Society of Lutheran Church, 
Philadelphia. 


PUBLISHERS AND AGENTS 


Abingdon Press, 150 Fifth Ave., New York (Pageants 
and Exhibits Division, 740 Rush St., Chicago). 
Appleton, D., and Co., 29-35 West 32nd St., New York. 

Association Press, 347 Madison Ave., New York. 

Baptist Board of Missionary Education, 276 Fifth Ave., 
New York. 

Barnes, A. S., & Co., '7 West 45th St., New York. 

Beacon Press, Boston. 

Boni & Liveright, 106 West 40th St., New York. 

Boy Scouts of America, 200 Fifth Ave., New York. 

Century Co., 353 Fourth Ave., New York. 

Chappell, Ltd., New York. 

Church, John, Co., Fourth and Elm Sts., Cincinnati. 

Church Missions Publishing Co., Hartford, Conn. 


[272] 


MATERIALS 


Committee on Conservation and Advance, 740 Rush St., 
Chicago. 

Community Service, Inc., 315 Fourth Ave., New York. 

Dennison, T. S. & Co., 154 West Randolph St., Chicago. 

Dodd, Mead and Co., Fourth Ave. and 30th St., New 
York, 

Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society, New York. 

Doran, George H., Co., 224 Madison Ave., New York. 

Drama League of America, Drama League Bookshop, 
59 East Van Buren St., Chicago. 

Dramatic Publishing Co., 5428 Dearborn St., Chicago. 

Dutton, E. P., & Co., 681 Fifth Ave., New York. 

Educational Division, Department of Missions, Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church, 281 Fourth Ave., New 
York. 

French, Samuel, 28-30 West 38th St., New York. 

Harper Bros., 49 East 33rd St., New York. 

Holt, Henry, & Co., 19 West 44th St., New York. 

Houghton Mifflin Co., 4 Park St., Boston. 

Longmans, Green & Co., 443-449 Fourth Ave., New 
York. 

Luce, J. W., & Co., 212 Summer St., Boston. 

Macmillan Co., 60 Fifth Ave., New York. 

Methodist Book Concern, 740 Rush St., Chicago. 

Missionary Education Movement of U. S. and Canada, 
160 Fifth Ave., New York. 

Moffatt, Yard & Co. (address Dodd, Mead & Co.). 

Morehouse Publishing Co., Milwaukee, Wis. 

Pageant Publishing Co., 1206 South Hill St., Los 
Angeles. 

Parish Leaflet Co., Hobart, Ind. 

[273 | 


DRAMA IN EDUCATION 
Penn Publishing Co., 925 Filbert St., Philadelphia. 


Pilgrim Press, Boston. 
Scribner’s, Charles, Sons, New York. 
Standard Publishing Co., Cincinnati. 
Stratford Co., 32 Oliver St., Boston. 
Strouse, Arthur H., Publishing Co., Lakeside, Ohio. 
White, James T., & Co., 70 Fifth Ave., New York. 
Willis Music Co., 137 West Fourth St., Cincinnati. 
Woman’s American Baptist Foreign Mission Society, 
276 Fifth Ave., New York. 
Woman’s Board of Home Missions of the Presbyterian 
Church in the U. S. A., 156 Fifth Ave., New York. 
Woman’s Press, 600 Lexington Ave., New York. 
Women’s Missionary Society of the United Lutheran 
Church of America, 1228 Fulton Bldg., Pittsburgh. 
ERRATUM 
To allreferences to the Appendices add two pages; 
i.e. a reference to p. 276 should read, p. 278, etc. 


274] 


APPENDICES 


APPENDIX A 


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COSTUMES 


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[277] 


4 


FIG. 


FIG. 3 


FIG. 2 


1 


FIG. 


Figure 3 is the costume worn by the low class 


the middle class woman, while figure 4 is a woman of the 


The same style more elaborate and with the royal headdress becomes the garb of a 


queen or goddess. 


Figure 1 is the dress worn by a slave. 
Figure 2 is 


women of Egypt. 


court. 


COSTUMES 





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[278] 


APPENDIX C 
BIBLIOGRAPHY 
CHAPTER I 


Beegle, Mary Porter, and Crawford, Jack R., Com- 
munity Drama and Pageantry, Yale University 
Press, 1916. 

Betts, George Herbert, New Program of Religious Edu- 
cation, Abingdon Press. 

Dewey, John, Psychology, American Book Co., 1891. 

Groos, Karl, The Play of Man, D. Appleton ’& Co., 
TO: 

Havemeyer, Loomis, Drama of Savage People. 

Horne, Herman H., Pedagogical Principles of Educa- 
tion, Macmillan Co., 1906. 

Lee, Joseph, Play in Education, Macmillan Co., 1922. 

Parker, S. C., Types of Elementary Teaching and 
Learning. 

Schiller, The Stage as a Moral Institution (essay). 


CHAPTER II 


Addison, Spectator. 
Bates, Katherine Lee, English Religious Drama, Mac- 
millan Co., 1917. 
Brinkley, F., Japan: Its History, Arts, and Literature, 
Vol. III., Boston and Tokyo, 1901. 
[279 | 


APPENDICES 


Chambers, E. K., Medieval Stage, Book II, Clarendon 
Press, Oxford. 

Donaldson, J. W., The Theatre of the Greeks, London, 
1860. 

Gayley, Charles M., Plays of Our Fathers. 

Haigh, A. E., The Attic Theatre, Oxford, 1898. 

Hase, Karl, Miracle Plays and Sacred Drama, London, 
1880. 

Havemeyer, Loomis, Drama of Savage People. 

Mantzius, Karl, History of Theatrical Art, Duckworth 
& Co. 

Renouf, R. Le Page, Religion of Ancient Egypt, Charles 
Scribner’s Sons, 1880. 

Tunison, Dramatic Tradition of the Dark Ages. 


CHAPTER III 


Addams, Jane, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets, 
Maemillan Co., 1912. 

Baker, Edna Dean, Parenthood and Child Nurture, 
Maemillan Co., 1922. 

Baldwin, J. M., Mental Development, Vol. I, Mac- 
millan Co. 

Betts, George H., The Mind and Its Education, Abing- 
don Press, 1916. 

Curtis, Elnora Whitman, The Dramatic Instinct in 
Education, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. 

Frear, Caroline, Imitation, Pedagogical Seminary, Vol. 
IV, pp. 382-386. 

Groos, Karl, The Play of Man, D. Appleton & Co., 
1912. 

[280] 


APPENDICES 


Harrison, Elizabeth, A Study of Child Nurture, Uni- 
versity of Chicago Press, 1914. 

Heniger, Alice Herts, The Kingdom of the Child, E. P. 
Dutton & Co., 1918. 

Kirkpatrick, E. A., Fundamentals of Child Study, Mac- 
millan Co., 1912. 

Kirkpatrick, E. A., Individual in the Making, Houghton 
Mifflin Co., 1911. 

Lee, Joseph, Play in Education, Macmillan Co., 1922. 

MacCunn, John, The Making of Character, Macmillan 
Co., 1913. 

Palmer, Luella, Play Life of the First Eight Years. 

Stevenson, R. L., Child’s Play (Virginibus Puerisque). 

Sully, Jane, Studies in Childhood. 

Thorndike, Edward L., Elements of Psychology, A. G. 

Seiler, 1913. 


CHAPTER IV 


Addams, Jane, The Spirit of Youth and the City Streets, 
Macmillan Co., 1912. 

Bagley, William C., Educational Values, Macmillan Co., 
1912. 

Burton, William, Supervision and Improvement of 
Teaching, D. Appleton & Co., 1922. 

Cook, The Play Way. 

Craig, Anne Throop, Development of the Dramatic in 
Education, Pedagogical Seminary, March, 1908. 

Curtis, Elnora Whitman, The Dramatic Instinct in Edu- 
cation, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. 

Dewey, John, Psychology, American Book Co., 1891. 

[281 | 


APPENDICES 


Dolman, J., Jr., Educational Dramatics, Quarterly 
Journal of Speech Education, 7: 158-161, April, 
1921. 

Earhart, Lida B., Types of Teaching, Houghton Mif- 
flin Co., 1915. 

Finlay-Johnson, Harriet, The Dramatic Method of 
Teaching, Ginn.& Co. 

Friedland, George E., Modern Elementary School Prac- 
tice, Macmillan Co., 1920. 

Fry, Emma Sheridan, Educational Dramatics, Moffatt, 
Yard & Co., 19138. 

Gasell, Arnold L., The Normal Child and Primary Edu- 
cation, Ginn & Co., 1912. 

Groos, Karl, The Play of Man, D. Appleton & Co., 1913. 

Harrison, Elizabeth, 4d Study of Child Nature, Chicago, 
1914. 

Heniger, Alice Herts, The Kingdom of the Child, E. P. 
Dutton & Co., 1918. 

Herts, Alice Minnie, The Children’s Educational 
Theatre, Harper & Brothers, 1911. 

Hilliard, Evelyne, Amateur and Educational Dramatics. 

Kirkpatrick, E. A., Individual in the Making, Houghton 
Mifflin Co., 1911. 

Klapper, Paul, Principles of Educational Practice, D. 
Appleton & Co., 1912. 

Lee, Joseph, Play in Education, Macmillan Co., 1922. 

Locke, Thoughts Concerning Education. 

Thorndike, Edward L., Educational Psychology, Lemcke 
& Beuchner, New York, 1903. 

» Teachers College, Columbia University, 


[282] 





APPENDICES 


New York, 1923, Vol. I, “The Original Nature of Man.” 
Shaver, Erwin L., The Project Principle in Religious 
Education, University of Chicago Press, 1924. 
Welton, What Do We Mean by Education? Macmil- 

lan Co., 1914. 
Woodworth, Robert Sessions, Dynamic Psychology, 
Columbia University Press, New York, 1922. 


CHAPTER V 


Bates, Alfred, The Drama (Religious), Vol. IV, 
Athenian Press, London Soc., 1903. 

Bennett, Arthur, “What Makes Education Religious?” 
Journal of Religious Education, April, 1921. 
Betts, George Albert, “What Makes Education Re- 

ligious?”’ Ibid. 

Candler, Martha, Drama in Religious Service, Century 
Co., 1922. 

Coe, George Albert, Education in Religion and Morals, 
Fleming H. Revell Co., 1904. 

Craig, A. T., The Dramatic Festival, C. P. Putnam’s 
Sons, 1912. 

Donnelly, E. P., Kinship of Art and Religion, Catholic 
World, 117: 754-785, 1923. 

Flewelling, Christ and the Drama of Doubt, Methodist 
Book Concern. (This book presents the dra- 
matic power of the Bible.) 

Galloway, T. W., The Drama in the Church, Pilgrim 
Press, 1922. (A very helpful manual.) 

Griggs, Edward H., Moral Education, B. W. Huebsch, 
1916. 

[283 ] 


APPENDICES 


Mackay, Constance D’Arcy, “Play Production in 
Churches and Sunday Schools,’ Playground Maga- 
zine, April, 1921. 

Meredith, William V., Pageantry and Dramatics in 
Religious Education, Abingdon Press, 1921. 
Miller, Elizabeth Erwin, Dramatization in the Church 

School, University of Chicago Press, 1923. 

Dramatization of Bible Stories. 

Moulton, Richard G., Literary Study of the Bible, Mac- 
millan Co. 

Munkres, Alberta, Primary Methods in the Church 
School, Abingdon Press, 1921. 

Palmer, Luella, The First Eight Years. 

Stuart, George Craig, The Church and the Theatre. 

Willcox, Helen, Mission Study Through Educational 
Dramatics, Interchurch World Movement, 1920. 





CHAPTER VI 


Adams, Florence A., Gesture and Pantomimic Action, 
New York, 1891. 

Baker, Geo. B., Dramatic Technique, Houghton Mif- 
flin Co. 

Bates, Esther Willard, and Orr, William, Pageants and 
Pageantry, Ginn & Co., 1912. 

Chubb, Percival, Festival and Plays, Harper & Bros., 
1912. 

Community Drama, Community Service, Inc. 

Hurll, Estelle M., How to Show Pictures to Children, 
Houghton Mifflin Co., 1914. 

[ 284 | 


APPENDICES 


Miller, Elizabeth Erwin, Dramatization of Bible Sto- 
ries. 

Simons, Sarah, and Orr, Clem I., Dramatization, Scott, 
Foresman & Co., 1913. 

Symons, Arthur, Pantomime and the Poetic Drama, in 
Studies of Seven Arts, 1907. 

Walkley, A. B., “Drama with a Mission,’ Forum, De- 
cember 21, 1921. 

Wendlandt, O. J., Living Statuary, Manchester. 


CHAPTER VII 


Anonymous, The Amateur’s Handbook, Samuel French, 
1910. 

Calvert, Louis, Problems of the Actor, Henry Holt 
& Co. 

Campbell, H., Voice, Speech and Gesture, London, 1904. 

Clark, Barrett H., How to Produce Amateur Plays, 
Little, Brown & Co., 1917. 

Craig, A. T., The Dramatic Festival, G. P. Putman’s 
Sons, 1912. 

Filippi, Rosina, Hints to Speakers and Players, Lon- 
don, 1913. 

Gracia, Gustave, The Actor’s Art, London. 

Henderson, Alice, Adam’s Dream and Other Mairacle 
Plays. (Out of print but found in most good 
libraries. ) 

Irving, Henry, Drama. 

Johnson, Gertrude, Choosing a Play, Century Co., 1920. 

Keith, Angus, J., Amateur Acting, London, 1913. 

[285 | 


APPENDICES 


Lewes, G. H., Actors and the Art of Acting, Henry Holt 
& Co. 

Mackay, Constance D’Arcy, How to Produce Children’s — 
Plays, Henry Holt & Co., 1915. 

Montague, Charles Edward, Dramatic Values, Macmil- 
lan Co. | 

Pollock, Walter, Amateur Theatricals. 

Stratton, Clarence, Producing in Little Theatres, Henry 
Holt & Co. 

Taft, Linwood, Technique of Pageantry, A. S. Barnes 
& Co. 

Taylor, Morrison, Practical Stage Directions for Ama- 
teurs, E. P. Dutton & Co. 


CHAPTER VIII 


CoLor 


Batchelder, Ernest A., Design in Theory and Practice, 
Macmillan Co., 1910. 

Chevreul, M. Z., The Principles of Harmony and Con- 
trasts of Color (translated by Charles Martel), 
1859. 

Munsell, A. H., 4d Color Notation, George H. Ellis 
Company, 1905. 

Weinberg, Louis, Color in Everyday Life, Dodd, Mead 
and Company, 1918. 


CosTUME 


a. General Costumes 


[286] 


APPENDICES 


Mackay, Constance D’Arcy, Costumes and Scenery for 
Amateurs, Henry Holt & Co. 
Pougin’s Dictionaire Du Theatre (under Costumes). 


b. Biblical Costumes 


Bailey and Kent, History of the Hebrew Commonwealth. 

Barton, G. H., Archeology of the Bible. 

Grant, Elihu, The Peasantry of Palestine. 

Hodges, Dean, Peeps at Many Land Series. 

International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. 

Lee, Life Among the Bedouins. 

Parker, Louis, Joseph and His Brethren (Acting Edi- 
tion). 

Tissot Pictures, New York. 

Ziger, Ben, Hebraische Archeologie, pp. 85, 100, 253, 
262, 264. 


ce. Chinese Costumes 


Alexandria, Dress and Manners of the Chinese. 
Giles, H. H., Civilization of China. 
Mason, George H., The Punishments of China. (Has 


pictures in color.) 
d. Egyptian Costumes 


Bimon, Ancient Egypt. 
Erman, Life in Ancient Egypt. 
Jequier, Egyptian Decoration. 
Maspero, G., Ancient Egypt and Assyria. 
Priests D’Vanine, L’Histoire d’Art Egyptien. 
Ward, J., Sacred Bible. 

[287] 


APPENDICES 


e. Greek Costumes 


Abrahams, Ethel, Greek Dress, London. 
Church, A. J., The Odyssey for Boys and Girls. 
Haigh, The Attic Theatre. 

Schuman, Album of Children’s Pieces. 


f.°Indian Costumes 


Andrews, Renaissance in India, Chap. VII. 

Carmichael, Things as They Are on the Mission Field. 

Grimball and Wells, Costuming a Play, Century Co., 
1924. 


g. Japanese Costumes 


Bacon, Alice, Japanese Girls and Women. 
Morse, Edwin S., Japan Day by Day. 
Okakaru, Life and Thought in Japan. 


h. Roman Costumes 


Baxter, Illustrations of Greek, Roman and Egyptian 
Costumes. 

Dale, Lucy, The Bankside Costume Book. 

Guizot’s History of France, Vol. I, II, Ill. 

MacGreggor, The Story of Rome. 


CHAPTER IX 


EQuirpMENT 


Carter, H., Theatre of Max Reinhardt. 
[ 288 | 


APPENDICES 


Craig, Gordon E., On the Art of the Theatre. 

Krews, Arthur Edwin, Play Production in America, 
Henry Holt & Co., 1916. 

Moderwell, Hiram K., The Theatre of To-day, John 
Lane Co. 

Pichel, Irving, On Building a Theatre, Theatre Arts, 
Inc., New York, 1920. 

Theatre Arts Magazine, 7 East 42nd St., New York. 

The Drama, 59 East Van Buren St., Chicago. 


MaAKE-uP 


Fitzgerald, S. J. A., How to “Make-up.” (A practical 
guide for amateurs.) Samuel French. 

Fox, C. H., The Art of Make-up, London. 

Lynn, R. A. N., Lynn’s Practical Hints on Making-up, 
London. 

Morton, The Art of Theatrical Make-up, Brentano. 

Painter, Turner’s Complete Guide to Theatrical Make- 
up, London. 


[289] 





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